Category Archives: Missouri Stem Cells

Missouri Master Gardener Core ManualManjula V. NathanSoil Testing and Plant Diagnostic Service Laboratory

Soil as a medium for plant growth can be described as a complex natural material derived from weathering of rocks and decomposition of organic materials, which provide nutrients, moisture and anchorage for plants.

Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter (humus), air and water. An ideal soil for plant growth is about 50 percent solids consisting of minerals and organic material (Figure 1). The organic portion consists of residues from plants, animals and other living organisms. Under optimum conditions for plant growth, about half of the space between soil particles pore space is filled with water, and the remainder with air. Soil compaction reduces pore space and the amount of air and water the soil can hold, thereby restricting root growth and the ability of plants to take up nutrients from the soil.

Figure 1Volumetric content of four principal soil components for an ideal soil at ideal moisture content for plant growth.

Soil colorThe color of soil has little effect on plant growth but is an indicator of soil properties that do affect plant development. Color is an indicator of organic matter content, drainage and aeration.

Soil structureSoil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates. Any physical disturbance influences soil structure. The addition of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) or organic matter improves the structure of soil by enhancing aggregation, the ability of soil particles to hold together as a coherent mixture. Organic matter acts as a bonding agent in holding soil particles together to form aggregates. Excessive sodium (Na) levels in soils cause dispersion of soil particles that can result in poor soil structure. Development of desirable soil structure increases porosity (the amount of pore space in the soil), reduces erodibility and improves water-holding capacity, root penetration and ease of tillage.

Soil textureSoil texture refers to the percentage of sand (2.0 to 0.05 mm), silt (0.05 to 0.002 mm) and clay particles (less than 0.002 mm) that make up the mineral portion of the soil (Figure 2). Loam is a variable mix of these three textural classes.

Figure 2The soil textural triangle shows the percentage of sand, silt and clay in each of the textural classes. Soil texture can be measured accurately in a laboratory. Soil texture can also be estimated in the field by a hand-feel method (see Table 1).

Table 1. Soil texture as defined by soil texture class and estimated by a hand-feel method.

Soil organic matterSoil organic matter, or humus, is the partially decomposed residue of plants, animals and other organisms. Organic matter refers to all organic material in the soil, including fresh crop residues.

Organic matter improves soil structure by acting as a bonding agent that holds soil particles together in aggregates. Without organic matter, aggregates are less stable and can be easily broken apart. Good soil structure promotes water movement and root penetration while reducing soil crusting, clod formation and erosion.

Organic matter provides plant nutrients, mainly nitrogen and sulfur and smaller amounts of phosphorus. About 20 pounds of nitrogen are released by decomposition of every 1 percent of organic matter in the soil. Organic matter is a primary reservoir for available forms of micronutrients (mainly zinc and boron).

Soil organic matter also improves the cation exchange capacity of the soil, its ability to hold positively charged molecules, or ions, of mineral nutrients.

Soil organismsSoil organisms vary in size from microscopic bacteria, fungi and algae to those visible to the naked eye, such as earthworms and insects. They perform both beneficial and detrimental functions in the soil.

Microbes decompose organic matter and release nutrients for plant uptake. Bacteria called rhizobia are responsible for fixing atmospheric nitrogen as plant-available forms in root nodules on legumes. Some fungi and nematodes are responsible for plant diseases, and many soil insects damage crops.

Fertilizer has positive effects on soil microorganisms by providing more nutrients and increased crop residues. Application of anhydrous ammonia will temporarily reduce populations of microorganisms in the zone of application.

Soil pHSoil pH is a relative measure of the hydrogen ion concentration (H+) in the soil. The pH value can vary from a minimum value of 0 to a maximum value of 14.

Soil pH affects the availability of nutrients to plants (Figure 3). In acid soils (pH is low) calcium and magnesium become more available to plants, whereas the micronutrients iron, aluminum and manganese become soluble and can reach levels toxic to plants. These micronutrients also can react with phosphorus to form compounds that are insoluble and not available to plants. In alkaline soils (pH is high), several soil micronutrients, including zinc, copper and cobalt, become less available to plants. Also at high pH, phosphorus precipitates (becomes insoluble) with the higher levels of calcium in the soil and therefore becomes less available to plants.

Soil pH affects the population and activity of microorganisms. The activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with legumes is impaired in acid soils, resulting in less nitrogen fixation.

Several natural processes cause most soils to become more acidic over time:

Figure 3Soil pH affects nutrient availability to plants. The width of the band indicates the relative availability of each plant nutrient at various pH levels.

Cation exchange capacityCation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of the total amount of exchangeable cations (positively charged ions) a soil can adsorb. Nutrient cations in the soil include positively charged ions such as calcium (Ca+2), magnesium (Mg+2), potassium (K+), sodium (Na+) and hydrogen (H+). In soil tests, CEC is reported in milliequivalents (meq) per 100 grams of soil. The exchangeable cations in the soil are in equilibrium with those in the soil solution (water in the soil). As plants remove nutrients (cations) from the soil solution, they are replenished from the adsorbed cations, which are then available for plant uptake (Figure 4).

Figure 4Exchangeable nutrient cations adsorbed on soil particles exist in equilibrium with cations in the soil solution. Cations from the particles replenish those taken up from the soil solution by plants.

Table 2. The higher the clay content of the soil, the greater its cation exchange capacity (CEC).

Anion retention in soilsAnions are negatively charged ions. They are retained by positively charged surfaces in the soil, but only in negligible amounts. Negatively charged ions, such as nitrate and phosphate anions, are repelled by clay/humus particles, which are also negatively charged. For this reason, anions are susceptible to leaching losses in soil solutions.

Seventeen elements are considered essential nutrients for plant growth, and 14 of these elements come from the soil (Table 3). If there is a deficiency of any essential element, plants cannot complete their vegetative or reproductive cycles. Some of these nutrients combine to form compounds that make up cells and enzymes. Other nutrients are necessary for certain chemical processes to occur.

Table 3. Seventeen essential plant nutrients derived from air, water and soil.

Concept of most limiting nutrientJust as the capacity of a wooden bucket to hold water is determined by the height of the short stave, crop yields are restricted by the soil nutrient in shortest supply (Figure 5). Increasing the height of the nitrogen (N) stave in the bucket does not increase the buckets capacity. In Figure 4, unless sulfur fertility is improved, the value of other fertilizer nutrients is reduced. Soil testing discovers the limiting nutrients (short staves) and maximizes fertilizer returns.

Figure 5The most limiting nutrient in a soil determines the growth and reproduction of plants.

Nitrogen is a building block of plant proteins. It is an integral part of chlorophyll and is a component of amino acids, nucleic acids and coenzymes.

Most nitrogen in the soil in tied up in organic matter. It is taken up by plants as nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) ions from inorganic nitrate and ammonium compounds. These compounds can enter the soil as a result of bacterial action (nitrogen fixation), application of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer, or conversion of organic matter into ammonium and nitrate compounds.

Not all nitrates in the soil are taken up by plants. Nitrates can be leached beyond the root zone in sandy soils or converted to nitrogen gas in wet, flooded soils. Nitrogen fixation by soil microbes immobilizes nitrogen, making in available for later use by plants.

A soil test is the best way to determine how much nitrogen fertilizer should be added to your soil. Application rates for specific crops are based on typical yield goals, the organic matter content of the soil, the previous crop produced on that soil, and the amount of manure used.

Plants use phosphorus to form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA and to store and transfer energy. Phosphorus promotes early plant growth and root formation through its role in the division and organization of cells. Phosphorus is essential to flowering and fruiting and to the transfer of hereditary traits.

Phosphorus is adsorbed by plants as H2PO4-, HPO4-2 or PO-3, depending upon soil pH. The mobility of phosphorus in soil is low, and deficiencies are common in cool, wet soils.

Phosphorus should be applied to fields and gardens before planting and should be incorporated into the soil. This is especially important for perennial crops. Application rates should be based on soil testing.

Potassium is necessary to plants for translocation of sugars and for starch formation. It is important for efficient use of water through its role in opening and closing small apertures (stomata) on the surface of leaves. Phosphorus increases plant resistance to diseases and assists in enzyme activation and photosynthesis. It also increases the size and quality of fruits and improves winter hardiness.

Plants take up potassium in the form of potassium ions (K+). It is relatively immobile in soils but can leach in sandy soils. Potassium fertilizer should be incorporated into the soil at planting or before. Application rates should be based on a soil test.

Calcium provides a building block (calcium pectate) for cell walls and membranes and must be present for the formation of new cells. It is a constituent of important plant carbohydrates, such as starch and cellulose. Calcium promotes plant vigor and rigidity and is important to proper root and stem growth.

Plants adsorb calcium in the form of the calcium ion (Ca+2). Calcium needs can be only determined by soil test. In most cases calcium requirements are met by liming the soil. Potatoes are an exception; use gypsum (calcium sulfate) on potatoes to avoid scab disease if calcium is needed. Gypsum provides calcium to the soil but does not raise the pH level of the soil. Keeping pH low helps prevent growth of the bacteria that cause scab disease.

Magnesium is a component of the chlorophyll molecule and is therefore essential for photosynthesis. Magnesium serves as an activator for many plant enzymes required for sugar metabolism and movement and for growth processes. Plants take up magnesium as the Mg+2 ion.

Sulfur is a constituent of three amino acids (cystine, methionine and cysteine) that play an essential role in protein synthesis. Sulfur is present in oil compounds responsible for characteristic odors of plants such as garlic and onion. It is also essential for nodule formation on legumes.

Plants take up sulfur in the form of sulfate (SO4-2) ions. Sulfur can also be adsorbed from the air through leaves in areas where the atmosphere has been enriched with sulfur compounds from industrial wastes. Sulfur is susceptible to leaching, and sulfur deficiencies can occur in sandy soils low in organic matter. Sulfur needs can be only determined by a soil test.

Zinc is an essential component of several enzymes in plants. It controls the synthesis of indoleacetic acid, an important plant growth regulator, and it is involved in the production of chlorophyll and protein. Zinc is taken up by plants as the zinc ion (Zn+2).

Zinc deficiencies are more likely to occur in sandy soils that are low in organic matter. High soil pH, as in high-lime soils, the solubility of zinc decreases and it becomes less available. Zinc and phosphorus have antagonistic effects in the soil. Therefore zinc also becomes available in soils that are high in phosphorus. Wet and cold soil conditions can cause zinc deficiency because of slow root growth and slow release of zinc from organic matter.

Iron is taken up by plants as ferrous ion (Fe+2). Iron is required for the formation of chlorophyll in plant cells. It serves as an activator for biochemical processes such as respiration, photosynthesis and symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Turf, ornamentals and certain trees are especially susceptible to iron deficiency, although in general, lack of iron in the soil is not a problem. Symptoms of iron deficiency can occur on soils with pH greater than 7.0. Specific needs for iron can be determined by soil test, tissue test and visual symptoms.

Manganese serves as an activator for enzymes in plant growth processes, and it assists iron in chlorophyll formation. Plants obtain this nutrient from the soil in the form of manganous ion (Mn+2).

Manganese deficiency in soils is not common but can occur in sandy soils with a pH of 8. Soil pH is a good indicator of manganese availability, which can increase to toxic levels in highly acidic soils (pH less than 4.5). Crops most responsive to manganese are onions, beans, potato, spinach, tomato, peas, raspberries, strawberries, apples and grapes.

Copper is an activator of several enzymes in plants. It may play a role in production of vitamin A. Deficiency interferes with protein synthesis.

Copper deficiencies are not common in soils. Plants take up copper from the soil in the form of cuprous (Cu+) or cupric (Cu+2) ions. Crops most responsive to copper are carrots, lettuce, onions and spinach.

Boron regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates in plants. It is essential for the process by which meristem cells (cells that divide) differentiate to form specific tissues. With boron deficiency, plant cells may continue to divide, but structural components are not differentiated.

Boron is taken up by plants as the borate ion (BO3-). Plants differ in their boron needs. Plants with high boron requirements are cauliflower, broccoli, turnip, brussels sprouts, apples, celery and alfalfa. Boron can be limiting on sandy soils low in organic matter. Do not overapply, because boron toxicity can occur ( e.g., beans). Soil testing for boron can predict fertilizer requirement.

Molybdenum is taken up by plants as molybdate ions (MoO4-). Molybdenum is an essential micronutrient that enables plants to make use of nitrogen. Without molybdenum, plants cannot transform nitrate nitrogen to amino acids and legumes cannot fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Molybdenum deficiency can occur in acidic, sandy soils. Liming the soil to pH 6 will correct the problem. Soil applications, foliar applications or coating seed with molybdenum are also effective. Cauliflower is the main vegetable crop sensitive to low levels of molybdenum in the soil.

Chlorine is required in photosynthetic reactions. Deficiency of chlorine in soils is rare because of its universal presence in nature. Plants take up chlorine as chloride ion (Cl-).

Nickel is taken up by plants as Ni+2. Nickel is a component of the enzyme urease, which is needed to prevent toxic accumulations of urea, a product of nitrogen metabolism in plants. Nickel is thought to participate in nitrogen metabolism of legumes during the reproductive phase of growth. It is also essential for seed development. High levels of nickel in the soil can induce zinc or iron deficiency by competition between these elements in plant uptake.

The soil test is an excellent gauge of soil fertility. It is an inexpensive way to maintain good plant health and maximum productivity without polluting the environment by overapplication of nutrients.

Soil fertility fluctuates throughout the growing season each year. The quantity and availability of mineral nutrients are altered by the addition of fertilizers, manure, compost, mulch, lime or sulfur and by leaching. Furthermore, large quantities of mineral nutrients are removed from soils as a result of plant growth and development and the harvesting of crops. A soil test will determine the current fertility status. It also provides the information needed to maintain optimum fertility year after year.

Some plants grow well over a wide range of soil pH, while others grow best within a narrow range of pH. Most turf grasses, flowers, ornamental shrubs, vegetables and fruits grow best in slightly acid soils (pH 6.1 to 6.9). Plants such as rhododendron, azalea, pieris, mountain laurel and blueberries require a more acidic soil to grow well. A soil test is the only precise way to determine whether the soil is acidic, neutral or alkaline.

A soil test takes the guesswork out of fertilization and is extremely cost effective. It not only eliminates the expense of unnecessary fertilizers but also eliminates overuse of fertilizers and helps to protect the environment.

When is the best time for a soil test?Soil samples can be taken in the spring or fall for established sites. For new sites, soil samples can be taken anytime when the soil is workable. Most people conduct their soil tests in the spring. However, fall is a preferred time to take soil tests if one suspects a soil pH problem and wants to avoid the spring rush. Fall soil testing will allow you ample time to apply lime to raise the soil pH. Sulfur should be applied in the spring if the soil pH needs to be lowered.

How to take a soil sample?Most errors in soil testing occur when the sample is taken. Potential sources of errors include the following:

Taking a representative sample is important in soil testing. Use a trowel, spade and sampling tube/core samplers.

What soil sampling tools do I need?A soil sample is best taken with a soil probe or an auger. Samples should be collected in a clean plastic pail or box. These tools help ensure an equal amount of soil to a definite depth at the sampling site. However, a spade, knife, or trowel can also be used to take thin slices or sections of soil.

Push the tip of a spade deep into the soil and then cut a 1/2-inch to 1-inch slice of soil from the back of the hole. Be sure the slice goes 6 inches deep and is fairly even in width and thickness. Place this sample in the pail. Repeat five or six times at different spots over your garden. Thoroughly mix the soil slices in the pail. After mixing thoroughly, take out about 1-1/2 cup of soil and mail or, preferably, take it to your University Extension center. You can also mail or deliver it to the MUSoil and Plant Testing Laboratory in Columbia or at the Delta Research Center in Portageville. It is important that you fill out the soil sample information form (Figure 5) completely and submit it with your sample. By indicating on the form the crops you wish to grow, you can get specific recommendations.

How often should I test my soil?Soil should be tested every two to three years. In sandy soils, where rainfall and irrigation rates are high, samples should be taken annually.

What tests should be run? In general a regular fertility test is sufficient. This includes measurement of pH, neutralizable acidity (NA), phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, organic matter (OM) and cation exchange capacity (CEC).

What do the test result numbers mean?Some labs report soil test values as amounts of available plant nutrients, and others report extractable nutrients that will become available to the plants (Figure 6). Fertilizer rates are given in pounds of actual nutrient (as distinct from pounds of fertilizer) to be applied per 1,000 square feet.

MP555, Soil Sample Information for Lawn and Garden form, for MU soil testing laboratories is available online and at MU Extension centers.

Figure 6. A soil test report from the University of Missouri Soil and Plant Testing Laboratory shows the results of soil analysis and recommends fertilizer and limestone needs to improve plant health and productivity.

All fertilizer recommendations given in a soil test report are based on the amount of nutrient (N, P2O5, K2O) to apply for a given area. Lawn and garden recommendations are given in pounds (lb) per 1,000 square feet (sq ft). From the given recommendations it is necessary to select an appropriate fertilizer grade and determine how much of this fertilizer to apply to the garden area. Numbers on fertilizer bags indicate the exact percentages of nutrients by weight: 100 lb of 5-10-10 fertilizer contains 5 lb of nitrogen (N), 10 lb of phosphate (P2O5), and 10 lb of potash (K2O). Because it is difficult to achieve the exact amount of all recommended nutrients from the garden fertilizer blends available in the market, it is important to match the nitrogen requirement.

ExampleA soil test recommendation for your vegetable garden calls for 2 lb of N/1,000 sq ft, 0 lb of P2O5 /1,000 sq ft and 1 lb of K2O. The garden is 40 ft by 10 ft.

NoteThe weight of 2 cups of dry fertilizer is about 1 pound. Therefore, to meet the garden fertilizer recommendation, you will need about 6 cups of the fertilizer blend (25-0-12) material for the 400 sq ft area.

Recommended application rate for various granular fertilizers to apply 1 pound of nitrogen.

Excerpt from:
Soils, Plant Nutrition and Nutrient Management | MU Extension

At the start of the fall semester, Missouri S&T welcomed 15 faculty members to campus. Their expertise ranges from aerothermodynamics and advanced manufacturing to sports marketing and quantum physics.

This years new faculty are:

Dr. Mohammad Abbas, assistant teaching professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering. Abbas earned three degrees from Missouri S&T a Ph.D. and masters degree in aerospace engineering and a bachelors degree in mechanical engineering. His areas of expertise include thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, aerospace propulsion, vehicle performance, and general mechanics. He previously served as a graduate teaching assistant and course instructor at S&T.

Dr. Richard Billo, director of the Kummer Institute Center for Advanced Manufacturing and professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering. Billo joined S&T on Jan. 4 from the University of Notre Dame, where he served as associate vice president for research and professor of computer science and engineering. Billos areas of research expertise include advanced manufacturing, industrial information systems, metallurgy and liquid fuels processes. He holds a Ph.D. and a masters degree in industrial engineering from Arizona State University. He also holds a masters degree in psychology from the University of the Pacific and a bachelors degree in psychology from West Virginia University.

Dr. David Bojanic, Kummer Professor of Business and Information Technology. He was previously the Anheuser-Bush Foundation Professor in Marketing in the Carlos Alvarez College of Business at the University of Texas at San Antonio. Bojanic holds a Ph.D. in marketing from the University of Kentucky, an MBA from James Madison University and a bachelors degree in marketing from Pennsylvania State University. He has conducted extensive research in the areas of sports, events and tourism, hospitality organizations, and other service and nonprofit organizations.

Dr. Mehrzad Boroujerdi, vice provost and dean of the College of Arts, Sciences, and Education and professor of political science. Boroujerdi joined S&T from Virginia Tech, where he led the School of Public and International Affairs.

Prior to Virginia Tech, Boroujerdi spent 27 years on the political science faculty at Syracuse University. He has been a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University and the University of Texas-Austin, a visiting scholar at the University of California, Los Angeles, president of the Association for Iranian Studies, a non-resident scholar at the Middle East Institute in Washington, D.C., and a fellow of the American Council on Education. Boroujerdi, who is an author or co-author of four books, is an expert in comparative politics, Middle East regional politics and Iranian history. He earned a Ph.D. in international relations from The American University, a masters degree in political science from Northeastern University and a bachelors degree in political science from Boston University.

Dr. Ryan Cheek, assistant professor of English and technical communication. Cheek comes to S&T from Utah State University, where he worked as a graduate instructor while earning a Ph.D. in technical communication and rhetoric.

He holds a bachelors degree in sociology from Weber State University and a masters degree in communication from the University of Wyoming. His research addresses how technical rhetoric and technological phenomena iterate social relations, political ideologies and ethical commitments.

Dr. Alexander Douglas, assistant teaching professor of mining and explosives engineering. He worked at Hexagon Mining in Tucson, Arizona, for five years before pursuing a Ph.D. in mining engineering at S&T. He holds bachelors and masters degrees, both in mining engineering, from the University of Kentucky. While a Ph.D. student, Douglas served as a graduate research assistant and graduate teaching assistant at S&T before joining the faculty. He is currently assisting Dr. Catherine Johnson with U.S. Army-funded research on post-blast forensics training.

Dr. Xiaosong Du, assistant professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering, joined S&T from the University of Michigan, where he was a postdoctoral research fellow.

Du holds a Ph.D. in aerospace engineering from Iowa State University, a masters degree in aerospace engineering from Beijing University, and a bachelors degree in aerospace engineering from Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics in China. Dus research interests include machine and deep learning; rapid aerodynamic forward; robust design; and single- and multi-fidelity predictive modeling.

Dr. Halyna Hodovanets, assistant professor of physics. She previously taught as an assistant professor of physics at Texas Tech University in Lubbock. Before Texas Tech, she was an assistant research scientist at the Maryland Quantum Materials Center and the University of Marylands physics department in College Park. Hodovanets earned a Ph.D. in condensed matter physics at Iowa State University in Ames.

She holds a masters degree in physics from Minnesota State University in Mankato and bachelors degrees in physics and English from Drohobych State Pedagogical University in Ukraine. Her research focuses on the synthesis and discovery, characterization and optimization of new quantum materials in a single crystalline form.

Dr. Hyunsoo Kim, assistant professor of physics. Kim previously was as an assistant research scientist for the Maryland Quantum Materials Center at the University of Maryland-College Park.

He holds a Ph.D. in physics from Iowa State University as well as masters and bachelors degrees, both in physics, from Pusan National University in South Korea. Kims research interests include quantum materials, topological phases and superconductivity.

Dr. Zhi Liang, associate professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering. Liang joined S&T from California State University, Fresno, where he had served as assistant and then associate professor of mechanical engineering since 2016. Liang earned a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from S&T, and masters and bachelors degrees in materials science and engineering from Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China. His research interests include microscale and nanoscale thermodynamics and heat transfer; dynamics of nanodroplets, nanobubbles and nanoparticles; and computational modeling.

Dr. Melody Lo, the John and Ruth Steinmeyer Memorial Endowed Chair of Economics. She was previously a senior advisor to the chancellor and a professor of economics in the Neil Griffin College of Business at Arkansas State University in Jonesboro.

She has also held teaching and research positions at the University of Texas at San Antonio, the University of Houston and the University of Southern Mississippi. Los research focuses on government interventions in a foreign exchange market. She holds a Ph.D. in economics from Purdue University.

Dr. Andrea Scharf, assistant professor of biological sciences. She comes to S&T from Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, where she worked as a postdoctoral scientist.

She earned a Ph.D. and completed undergraduate studies in biology at the Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Germany. Her research focuses on the plasticity of biological systems from cells to populations, and their ability to respond to changing environmental conditions.

Dr. Davide Vigan, assistant professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering. He joins S&T from The University of Texas at Arlington, where he earned a Ph.D. in aerospace engineering and worked as a postdoctoral research associate at the Aerodynamics Research Center.

He holds undergraduate degrees in aerospace engineering from Polytechnic University of Milan in Italy. Vigans research interests include hypersonic air-breathing propulsion, compressible turbulent mixing, vortex dynamics, hypersonic aerothermodynamics, experimental fluid dynamics, and instrumentation development.

Dr. Javier Valentn-Svico, assistant teaching professor of engineering management and systems engineering. He earned a Ph.D. in engineering management from S&T in July and holds a masters degree in electrical engineering from S&T and a bachelors degree in electrical engineering from the University of Puerto Rico Mayaguez Campus.

Valentn-Svico worked in various engineering roles for Hewlett-Packard in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico, from 2001 to 2019. He has also worked at Johns Hopkins Universitys Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland, and DuPont in Chattanooga, Tennessee.

Dr. Xiaoming Wang, the Gary W. Havener Endowed Chair of Mathematics and Statistics. He previously led the mathematics department at Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, China. Wang earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from Indiana University-Bloomington. After graduating, he served as a postdoctoral fellow at New York University. He has served as a faculty member at Iowa State University, New York University, Florida State University and Fudan University in Shanghai, China.

Wang has co-authored two books, presented at hundreds of invited talks and lectures, and been featured as an expert on PBSs NOVA television series.

Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T) is a STEM-focused research university of over 7,000 students. Part of the four-campus University of Missouri System and located in Rolla, Missouri, Missouri S&T offers 101 degrees in 40 areas of study and is among the nations top 10 universities for return on investment, according to Business Insider. S&T also is home to the Kummer Institute, made possible by a $300 million gift from Fred and June Kummer. For more information about Missouri S&T, visitwww.mst.edu.

Originally posted here:
Missouri S&T welcomes new faculty - Missouri S&T News and Research

The Wall Street Journal's obituary for Susan L. Solomon. (Image: CWR)

Susan L. Solomon died on September 8th after a battle with ovarian cancer. You probably wont know her name. I didnt.

But something in her Wall Street Journal obituary stirred memories of old and riveting debates.

When she was 18, Solomon married the drummer for the Sixties band Country Joe and the Fish, who played Woodstock. But that is not the story.

After divorcing the drummer, she went to law school, became a big wheel at the Sony Corporation and other companies, and ended up founding a charity dedicated to embryonic stem cell research, eventually raising almost half a billion dollars for that purpose.

Susan Solomon placed herself in the middle of a national debate over embryonic stem cell research.

You may remember the emotional and often fractious debate about embryonic stem cells. It roiled our political culture back during the Bush administration. For instance, practically every speaker at the 2004 Democratic National Convention that nominated Catholic John Kerry spoke about the desperate need for treatments and cures promised from embryonic stem cells. For example, Ron Reagan, the youngest son of Ronald and Nancy Reagan, focused his speech on embryonic stem cell research, concluding: Whatever else you do come Nov. 2, I urge you, please, cast a vote for embryonic stem cell research.

Anyone with moral qualms about killing human embryos for their body parts, that is, stem cells, was called anti-science. That may have been when that epithet was first coined.

Advocates of embryo-destructive research made certain rather outlandish claims.

In 2006, my wife Cathy and I were invited to run the final days of a statewide referendum on human cloning in Missouri. Proposed as an addition to the Missouri Constitution, Amendment 2 purported to ensure that Missouri patients would have access to any therapies and cures and allow Missouri researchers to conduct any research permitted under federal law. It also called for the banning of human cloning or attempted cloning.

The embryonic stem cell debate was then and is now replete with massive deceptions. In this case, that there is a difference between reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning. Reproductive cloning was, they said, the deliberate creation of embryos that would be allowed to grow into toddlers. On the other hand, therapeutic cloning was acceptable because it created a human embryo and then allowed for her destruction to get at her stem cells.

And then there were the promises of treatments and cures. The primary talking point of the embryo-destruction crowd was there were a plethora of treatments and cures if only we could get at the stem cells of these tiny human beings.

Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, that is, they have not yet become specific organs and can therefore become almost anything in the human body. This means they can be used to cure parts of the body that are damaged or diseased. In the Wall Street Journal obit of Solomon, it highlights that she helped raise more than $400 million for stem-cell research aimed at curing such diseases as cancer, diabetes and Parkinsons. Micheal J. Fox told members of Congress that Embryonic stem cell research holds enormous promise. Others claimed it would cure Alzheimers.

So, what is the state of stem cell research?

Well, first, there have been heroic efforts to obtain pluripotent cells without killing the human embryo. This resulted from George Bushs 2006 decision to end federal funding for the creation of new cell lines from the destruction of embryos. It forced scientists who wanted government funding to get creative. The use of adult stem cells grew from that, as did the development of something called induced pluripotent stem cells, where adult stem cells are coaxed into pluripotency. A Japanese doctor won the Nobel Prize for this in 2006.

While adult stem cells have been effective in treating many disorders, and this has been a Godsend for some, those cells are not pluripotent; that is, they cannot turn into anything other than what they are.

Induced pluripotent stem cells seem not to have taken off as first hoped. According to a 2018 article at Nature.com, The number of ES-cell publications grew rapidly after 2006 and has held pace, at about 2,000 per year since 2012.

The problem with embryonic stem cells is they are something of a wild child. They tend to die when you work with them or are prone to creating tumors. To date, there appears to have been only one person cured of anything using embryonic stem cells, a man who seems to no longer need insulin to treat his diabetes. We shall see if this lasts.

Most papers you find online about stem cell research are about making the cells easier to work with. Some tests are happening on actual patients. They think macular degeneration is a possible candidate for treatment with embryonic stem cells. But for the most part, researchers are trying to find ways to create new colonies from existing lines.

In the meantime, the scientists keep making promises, and the deceptions keep coming. For example, the website of the New York Stem Cell Foundation a foundation which Susan Solomon co-founded defines embryonic stem cells as pluripotent stem cells that come from blastocysts small clumps of five-to-seven-day-old embryo cells left over from in vitro fertilization treatments that would otherwise be discarded.

The good news is that they must keep the deception alive in order to proceed. Note they must claim embryonic stem cells only come from discarded embryos from IVF treatments. Of course, this does not change the monstrousness of their experimentations, but at least they feel they must keep the deception alive.

In the Wall Street Journal obit, Solomon is quoted as saying, Im really comfortable asking dumb questions.

Well, heres one. After killing only God knows how many thousands of little human beings and spending hundreds of millions of dollars that could have been spent in other ways, where are all those treatments and cures that were promised twenty years ago?

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Questioning the wisdom of the late Susan Solomon Catholic World Report - Catholic World Report

VANCOUVER, British Columbia--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Aspect Biosystems, a biotechnology company pioneering the development of bioprinted tissue therapeutics to transform how we treat disease, is pleased to announce the appointment of three new members to its Board of Directors: Dr. Nancy Krieger, Dr. Don Haut, and Dr. Devyn Smith.

I am excited to extend a warm welcome to Nancy, Don, and Devyn as they join Aspects Board of Directors, said Tamer Mohamed, Chief Executive Officer, Aspect Biosystems. Each of them brings substantial experience in regenerative medicine and we are thrilled to have them join our mission as we move towards the next stage of growth.

About Aspects New Board Members

Dr. Nancy Krieger is the Chief Medical Officer of Talaris Therapeutics, a recently public late-clinical stage cell therapy biotech. She has over 18 years of global experience in the biopharmaceutical industry, including leadership positions at Bristol Myers Squibb and Novartis in areas spanning solid organ and stem cell transplantation, immunology, rare disorders, and chronic kidney and liver diseases. Before joining industry, Dr. Krieger had an active practice in liver transplantation as well as a basic science laboratory. She completed her transplant fellowship at the University of Wisconsin and general surgical residency at Stanford University, including a postdoctoral fellowship in Stanfords immunology department. Dr. Krieger earned her MD at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons.

I am thrilled to be joining the Board of Aspect Biosystems, said Dr. Nancy Krieger. As a transplant surgeon I am passionate about the tremendous potential of Aspects 3D bioprinting technology for regenerative cellular therapies, with the ultimate possibility of replacing organ transplants without the need for life-long immunosuppression.

Dr. Don Haut is currently the CEO of Carmine Therapeutics, a discovery-stage, non-viral gene therapy company with operations in Boston and Singapore. Throughout his career, Dr. Haut has completed transactions exceeding $8 billion. As Chief Business Officer of AskBio, he led the firms business development activities and spearheaded AskBios $4 billion acquisition by Bayer AG. Originally trained as a molecular biologist before joining McKinsey, Dr. Haut has since held senior business roles at 3M Company, Smith & Nephew, The Medicines Company, Promedior, Histogenics, Sherlock Bio, and AskBio. He earned his PhD in Molecular Biology from the Medical School at the University of Missouri-Columbia, and an MBA from Washington Universitys Olin School of Business.

When I first learned about what Aspect Biosystems was doing, my first thought was Wow! said Dr. Don Haut. My second thought was it would be great to work with those folks they are really onto something. So, I am delighted to be joining Aspect the team, the technology, and the mission are all outstanding."

Dr. Devyn Smith joined Arbor Biotechnologies as CEO in 2021 after concluding his role as COO of Sigilon Therapeutics. Prior to Sigilon, Dr. Smith worked in a variety of roles at Pfizer Inc., including COO of the UK-based Neusentis Unit focused on discovering and developing cell therapies. He received his PhD in Genetics from Harvard Medical School. He is an inventor on multiple patents and has published in leading scientific journals throughout his career. Dr. Smith is a board member and officer for the Alliance for Regenerative Medicine, the leading international advocacy organization dedicated to realizing the promise of regenerative medicines and advanced therapies.

I am excited to join the board of Aspect Biosystems, said Dr. Devyn Smith. I look forward to partnering with Tamer and the talented team at Aspect to build a successful company that delivers novel cellular therapies to patients with high unmet needs.

For full list of board members, visit http://www.aspectbiosystems.com/about.

About Aspect Biosystems

Aspect Biosystems is a biotechnology company creating bioprinted tissue therapeutics to transform how we treat disease. Aspect is combining its proprietary bioprinting technology, therapeutic cells, biomaterials, and computational design to create a pipeline of allogeneic tissues that replace or repair damaged organ functions. The company is also partnering with leading researchers and industry innovators worldwide to tackle the biggest challenges in regenerative medicine. Learn more at aspectbiosystems.com.

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Aspect Biosystems Appoints Three New Board Members - Business Wire

BRENTWOOD, Tenn., Sept. 09, 2022 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- IMAC Holdings, Inc. (Nasdaq: BACK) (IMAC or the Company), today announces it has completed the third cohort of its Phase 1 clinical trial for its investigational compound utilizing umbilical cord-derived allogenic mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of bradykinesia due to Parkinsons disease.

The third cohort consists of five patients with bradykinesia due to Parkinsons disease receiving an intravenous infusion of a high concentration stem cell treatment. The third and final cohort of the Phase 1 clinical trial was completed on Tuesday, September 6, 2022.

About IMACs Phase 1 Clinical Trial

The Phase 1 clinical trial, consisting of a 15-patient dose escalation safety and tolerability study, is being conducted at three of IMACs clinical centers in Chesterfield, Missouri, Paducah, Kentucky, and Brentwood, Tennessee. The trial is divided into three groups: 1) five patients with bradykinesia due to Parkinsons disease received a low concentration dose, intravenous infusion of stem cells, 2) five received a medium concentration intravenous dose, 3) and five received a high concentration intravenous dose. All groups will be subsequently tracked for 12 months. IMACs medical doctors and physical therapists at the clinical sites have been trained to administer the treatment and manage the therapy. Ricardo Knight, M.D., M.B.A., who is medical director of the IMAC Regeneration Center of Chicago, is the trials principal investigator.

The Institute of Regenerative and Cellular Medicine serves as the trials independent investigational review board, while Regenerative Outcomes provides management of the study. Further details of the trial can be found at clinicaltrials.gov.

About Bradykinesia Due to Parkinsons Disease

In addition to unusually slow movements and reflexes, bradykinesia may lead to limited ability to lift arms and legs, reduced facial expressions, rigid muscle tone, a shuffling walk, and difficulty with repetitive motion tasks, self-care, and daily activities. Parkinsons disease is the typical culprit of bradykinesia, and as it progresses through its stages, a persons ability to move and respond declines.

According to Zion Market Research, the global Parkinsons disease therapeutics market was $2.61 billion in 2018 and is expected to grow to $5.28 billion by 2025. The Parkinsons Disease Foundation estimates that nearly 10 million people are suffering from Parkinsons disease, and almost 60,000 new cases are reported annually in the U.S.

About IMAC Holdings, Inc.

IMAC Holdingsowns and manages health and wellness centers that deliver sports medicine, orthopedic care, and restorative joint and tissue therapies for movement restricting pain and neurodegenerative diseases.IMACis comprised of three business segments: outpatient medical centers, The Back Space, and a clinical research division. With treatments to address both young and aging populations,IMAC Holdingsowns or manages outpatient medical clinics that deliver regenerative rehabilitation services as a minimally invasive approach to acute and chronic musculoskeletal and neurological health problems. IMACs The Back Company retail spinal health and wellness treatment centers deliver chiropractic care within Walmart locations. IMACs research division is currently conducting a Phase I clinical trial evaluating a mesenchymal stem cell therapy candidate for bradykinesia due to Parkinsons disease. For more information visitwww.imacholdings.com.

# # #

Safe Harbor Statement

This press release contains forward-looking statements. These forward-looking statements, and terms such as anticipate, expect, believe, may, will, should or other comparable terms, are based largely on IMAC's expectations and are subject to a number of risks and uncertainties, certain of which are beyond IMAC's control. Actual results could differ materially from these forward-looking statements as a result of, among other factors, risks and uncertainties associated with its ability to raise additional funding, its ability to maintain and grow its business, variability of operating results, its ability to maintain and enhance its brand, its development and introduction of new products and services, the successful integration of acquired companies, technologies and assets, marketing and other business development initiatives, competition in the industry, general government regulation, economic conditions, dependence on key personnel, the ability to attract, hire and retain personnel who possess the skills and experience necessary to meet customers requirements, and its ability to protect its intellectual property. IMAC encourages you to review other factors that may affect its future results in its registration statement and in its other filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission. In light of these risks and uncertainties, there can be no assurance that the forward-looking information contained in this press release will in fact occur.

IMAC Press Contact:

Laura Fristoe

lfristoe@imacrc.com

The rest is here:
IMAC Holdings, Inc. Announces Completion of Third Cohort of its Phase 1 ...

IMAC Holdings, Inc.

BRENTWOOD, Tenn., Sept. 09, 2022 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- IMAC Holdings, Inc. (Nasdaq: BACK) (IMAC or the Company), today announces it has completed the third cohort of its Phase 1 clinical trial for its investigational compound utilizing umbilical cord-derived allogenic mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of bradykinesia due to Parkinsons disease.

The third cohort consists of five patients with bradykinesia due to Parkinsons disease receiving an intravenous infusion of a high concentration stem cell treatment. The third and final cohort of the Phase 1 clinical trial was completed on Tuesday, September 6, 2022.

About IMACs Phase 1 Clinical Trial

The Phase 1 clinical trial, consisting of a 15-patient dose escalation safety and tolerability study, is being conducted at three of IMACs clinical centers in Chesterfield, Missouri, Paducah, Kentucky, and Brentwood, Tennessee. The trial is divided into three groups: 1) five patients with bradykinesia due to Parkinsons disease received a low concentration dose, intravenous infusion of stem cells, 2) five received a medium concentration intravenous dose, 3) and five received a high concentration intravenous dose. All groups will be subsequently tracked for 12 months. IMACs medical doctors and physical therapists at the clinical sites have been trained to administer the treatment and manage the therapy. Ricardo Knight, M.D., M.B.A., who is medical director of the IMAC Regeneration Center of Chicago, is the trials principal investigator.

The Institute of Regenerative and Cellular Medicine serves as the trials independent investigational review board, while Regenerative Outcomes provides management of the study. Further details of the trial can be found at clinicaltrials.gov.

About Bradykinesia Due to Parkinsons Disease

In addition to unusually slow movements and reflexes, bradykinesia may lead to limited ability to lift arms and legs, reduced facial expressions, rigid muscle tone, a shuffling walk, and difficulty with repetitive motion tasks, self-care, and daily activities. Parkinsons disease is the typical culprit of bradykinesia, and as it progresses through its stages, a persons ability to move and respond declines.

Story continues

According to Zion Market Research, the global Parkinsons disease therapeutics market was $2.61 billion in 2018 and is expected to grow to $5.28 billion by 2025. The Parkinsons Disease Foundation estimates that nearly 10 million people are suffering from Parkinsons disease, and almost 60,000 new cases are reported annually in the U.S.

About IMAC Holdings, Inc.

IMAC Holdingsowns and manages health and wellness centers that deliver sports medicine, orthopedic care, and restorative joint and tissue therapies for movement restricting pain and neurodegenerative diseases.IMACis comprised of three business segments: outpatient medical centers, The Back Space, and a clinical research division. With treatments to address both young and aging populations,IMAC Holdingsowns or manages outpatient medical clinics that deliver regenerative rehabilitation services as a minimally invasive approach to acute and chronic musculoskeletal and neurological health problems. IMACs The Back Company retail spinal health and wellness treatment centers deliver chiropractic care within Walmart locations. IMACs research division is currently conducting a Phase I clinical trial evaluating a mesenchymal stem cell therapy candidate for bradykinesia due to Parkinsons disease. For more information visitwww.imacholdings.com.

# # #

Safe Harbor Statement

This press release contains forward-looking statements. These forward-looking statements, and terms such as anticipate, expect, believe, may, will, should or other comparable terms, are based largely on IMAC's expectations and are subject to a number of risks and uncertainties, certain of which are beyond IMAC's control. Actual results could differ materially from these forward-looking statements as a result of, among other factors, risks and uncertainties associated with its ability to raise additional funding, its ability to maintain and grow its business, variability of operating results, its ability to maintain and enhance its brand, its development and introduction of new products and services, the successful integration of acquired companies, technologies and assets, marketing and other business development initiatives, competition in the industry, general government regulation, economic conditions, dependence on key personnel, the ability to attract, hire and retain personnel who possess the skills and experience necessary to meet customers requirements, and its ability to protect its intellectual property. IMAC encourages you to review other factors that may affect its future results in its registration statement and in its other filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission. In light of these risks and uncertainties, there can be no assurance that the forward-looking information contained in this press release will in fact occur.

IMAC Press Contact:

Laura Fristoe

lfristoe@imacrc.com

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IMAC Holdings, Inc. Announces Completion of Third Cohort of its Phase 1 Clinical Study of Umbilical Cord-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells for the...

From University of Missouri Extension The sunflowers story be-gins

with a tale of unrequited love.

According to Greek mythology, the water nymph Clytie fell in love with the god of the sun, Apollo, who dazzled the earth as he drove his golden chariot across the sky each day. When he rejected Clyties affection, it nearly drove her mad. She spent days without food or water as she searched the heavens and waited for Apollo to appear.

In the end, she was transformed into a sunflower, a plant which turns its face toward the sun as it moves across the sky each day, said University of Missouri horticulturist David Trinklein.

Young sunflowers search the heavens for light for photosynthesis in a process called heliotropism, Trinklein said. The sunflowers internal (circadian) clock acts on growth hormones that cause cells on different sides of the plants stems to enlarge or contract. Older sunflowers mainly face east, warming themselves early in the day to attract pollinators.

This tough, carefree flower will bring smiles to the faces of even novice gardeners and children, Trinklein said. Its head of tightly packed clusters of small, tubular disc florets produce seeds. The surrounding ray florets, often incorrectly referred to as petals, attract pollinators.

Native Americans grew sunflowers for their edible, nutrient-rich seeds. Sunflowers made their way to Europe in the early 16th century. Russians soon developed a thriving sunflower oil industry. American farmers produce nearly 3 billion pounds of sunflower seeds yearly.

Recently, sunflower has been the subject of breeding efforts aimed at making it a more attractive garden flower and cut flower. This has resulted in the introduction of a number of new varieties which are shorter and more free flowering.

A good example is the variety Soraya, the first sunflower to win the coveted All-American Selection designation, Trinklein said. It produces four to six eye-catching blooms per stem on plants that reach a mature height of about 5 feet.

Another recent AAS winner is Suntastic, a dwarf sunflower that, unlike other varieties, produces new flowers all summer long, he said.

Trinklein shared several other facts about these beacons of summer:

Not all sunflowers are created equal. Single-stem sunflowers do best in high-density plantings and produce consistently on tall stems. Plant throughout the season for continuous blooms. Branching varieties produce flowers on multiple shorter stems that bloom all season.

In 1987, Vincent van Goghs Still Life: Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers sold to an anonymous buyer for $39.9 million, a record at the time.

Harvest cut flowers early in the morning before plants become heat stressed. For fun, immerse cut stems in vases and add food coloring.

Not all sunflowers are pollinating. Breeders have created pollenless varieties that enjoy a longer blooming season. Check seed packages for classification.

Choose a full-sun location for planting. The sunflowers deep taproot prefers a well-drained, loose garden loam. Sow seeds to inch deep and space 6 inches apart. Thin to 24 inches when established.

Sunflowers contain a compound that is toxic to neighboring species.

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Sunflower: The story of this summer goddess begins with search for love Pratt Tribune - Pratt Tribune

Stem cell research has been considered a potentially thriving resource for a wide range of therapies for such diseases as Parkinson's Disease and heart disease. This is due to stem cells' ability to generate close to any type of cell in the body and their exceptional adaptability that make them effective tools to discover new treatments to fight deadly diseases.

While stem cell research has grown by leaps and bounds, there have been barriers to reaching this objective, particularly in producing an enormous amount of stem cells to realize these therapies. To overcome these, scientists conducted experiments on stem cells aboard the International Space Station. Why the ISS? This is because microgravity conditions in the ISS offer an ideal environment to explore new scientific methods and approaches, allowing researchers to hurdle logistic barriers to mass production of stem cells, potentially in the billions.

This is because patients may need billions of cells as the specific treatment may require. While on Earth, gravity makes it challenging to produce these cells in massive quantities, which these treatments need. As such, stem cell research and mass production is deemed more effective in space, with the ISS as an ideal place to make that happen.

Researchers at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles has taken a giant leap to realize producing a type of stem cell in massive batches, a press announcement said. This stem cell can generate any type of cell in the bodytha can be used to make treatments for a number of diseases. One of its researchers, Dhruv Sareen, donated his own stem cells for the stem cell experiment in the ISS. Sareen's cells arrived aboard a SpaceX resupply mission - the SpX-25 dragon cargo mission - to the ISS over the weekend.

The experiment is the latest research project that involves shooting stem cells into space. Some, like this one, aim to overcome the terrestrial difficulty of mass producing the cells. Others explore how space travel impacts the cells in the body. And some help better understand diseases such as cancer.

Read Also:Stem Cell Transplant Sees Mice Regaining Memory And Learning Capabilities

In the previous stem cell research projects, the U.S., China and Italy brought to space various types of stem cells, including research on the effects of microgravity on cell-level heart function by Dr. Joseph Wu of Stanford University, director of the Stanford Cardiovascular Institute. Wu led a series of programs onn of Washing space-based stem cell research last year.

Earth-based applications have so far been limited.

Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has only approved stem cell products that carry blood-forming stem cells originating from umbilical cord blood to treat lymphoma. Stem cell treatments derived from stem cells sent to space have yet to be approved, according to Jeffrey McMillan of Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri.

The only stem cell-based products approved by the Food and Drug Administration contain blood-forming stem cells from umbilical cord blood for patients with blood disorders such as certain cases of lymphoma. There are no approved therapies using the kind of stem cells being sent to space or others derived from them, according to biomedical engineering expert Jeffrey Millman of Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri in an Interesting Engineering report.

McMillan noted that with present technology, even with FDA approval, capacity to manufacture these treatments is unattainable.

This is because large bioreactors are needed to produce stem cells on Earth. And these cells need to be stirred vigorously, so they don't stick together or precipitate to the bottom of the tank. The stirring process could also damage the cells. In microgravity, no such force is exerted on the cells, thus they are able to grow using a different approach.

The Cedars-Sinai research team sent a shoebox-sized container holding pluripotent stem cells for their NASA-funded experiment on the ISS. The container holds pumps and chemical solutions needed to keep the stem cells alive for four weeks, the Interesting Engineering report further said. The same experiment will be carried out on Earth for comparison. In about five weeks, the box sent to space will be brought back to Earth through the same SpaceX capsule it was sent to space on. The mission will help scientists directly evaluate results in space and on Earth in a short timeframe. This will offer valuable new insight that could help launch a burgeoning field of medical research.

Related Article: Stem Cell Therapy: Miracle Cure Discovered For Girl With Cerebral Palsy

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Is the ISS an Ideal Place to Grow Billions of Stem Cells? Scientists Seem to Think So - iTech Post

Samantha Snabes has wanted to be an astronaut for so long she doesnt remember a time when that wasnt the goal. Its not a totally unique childhood dream, of course, but Snabes has proved durable.

Now 41, she still very much wants to go to space, and in fact, has measured many life choices against whether they can help her get there. That focus has led her to do all kinds of bold things, starting from an early age. When she was 8 years old, she went to Space Camp, and after she got home, she cross referenced the astronaut directory in one of the take-home brochures with the white pages, calling up any astronauts with Michigan phone numbers. A few days later, Tony England, a veteran of the Apollo and Space Shuttle era and the now-retired dean of UM-Dearborns College of Engineering and Computer Science, left her a voicemail. It led to a memorable meeting between the two and some practical advice: I asked him what I needed to do to become an astronaut, and he said go to college.

Snabes held tight to Englands advice, but getting to college wasnt going to be straightforward. Aside from two aunts, no one in her family had a college diploma, and she was going to have to get creative to find the financial resources for college. The thing she had going for her was she was a standout student: Snabes was the valedictorian of her class and Wayne-Westlands Senior of the Year. So using money she saved from grooming dogs and cleaning horse stalls, she sent in her college applications. She got in almost everywhere she applied including Cornell. She assumed the admissions would come with offers of financial support, but the only place offering a scholarship was a college in Missouri. Her grandparents encouraged her to go for it, and after graduation, she packed up her things and headed to Springfield.

Snabes remembers many things about college being a struggle. She never had money for the current editions of textbooks, so she got by with older versions and loaners from the library. Often the reason her grades were so erratic was her out-of-date books literally didnt contain the required reading.

I think the culture is a lot different now, but I dont think it even really occurred to me to ask for help, Snabes said. I didnt have the resources and it felt like there was a stigma around that. Everyone else had their laptops, the right books, and seemed to know all these things that I didnt. I think its just sort of who I am, but I tried to figure things out on my own and push my way through it.

Despite the challenges, Snabes ultimately leveraged a lot of credits she earned there on scholarship into a transfer to UM-Dearborn. Continuing her education meant taking out lots of student loans, and like many first-gen students, she got tripped up navigating the conventions of the university system. She remembers that when she first transferred, someone encouraged her to pick a major and she didnt even know what a major was. She said astrophysics, one the university didnt offer, and then chose Biology based on someones suggestion that it might be a good fit given her love of science. Knowing of her ultimate dream, one of her professors suggested she should try to get some research experience, and she found a spot doing bench work in a start-up at a UM-Ann Arbor lab that was working with stem cells.

She half-jokingly says she was the janitor of the lab team, because her entry-level spot meant she did a lot of cleaning and prep work. But Snabes really shined in the lab. Her particular role involved using specialized hardware to grow stem cells, and she viewed keeping them alive as a personal challenge. Often she would drive back and forth between Detroit and Ann Arbor twice a day just to check on my cells, and her lab notebooks from that time are decorated with doodles of Thanksgiving turkeys and Christmas trees. At one point, their team set a record for keeping cells alive and regenerating in the device they were testing for more than a year. In fact, Snabes played a crucial part in that success. When she joined the team, the project was in a Phase II trial, and they were facing some challenges with lower-than-expected cell counts. One day, she asked if the trouble they were having keeping the cells alive might have something to do with the silver in the felt matrix they were growing them on. One of the investigators asked what she was thinking and she explained she remembered from her days making Halloween costumes for her younger siblings that felt often contains a silver ion, which gives it some antimicrobial properties. Ultimately it led to a discovery that the team had been unknowingly using off-the-shelf hobby-grade felt that did in fact contain silver. When they switched to medical grade, the cells took off, and so did the then-stalled project.

Snabes prowess in the lab ultimately led to her getting her name on the patent and another big opportunity. The start-up team had made rights to the technology available so others could build on the work, and the supervisor whom Snabes worked mostly closely with happened to be a serial entrepreneur. One day, the two went out to lunch and he asked if shed be interested in using the technology to start a company. The idea, hatched in a Korean restaurant in an Ann Arbor strip mall, eventually grew into Bioflow, which they launched in 2006. Over the next few years, they built up a client roster for their cell culture systems, but for a variety of reasons, selling the company became a better proposition than continuing to build it. She said looking back, they didnt get the best deal, but it allowed them to pay off their debts and get a fresh start with other opportunities.

For all of Snabes talents, instincts, and worth ethic in the lab, it was still just a means to an end in some ways. Getting into the astronaut program was still on her mind, and she was still making unconventional decisions to get there. During her time at UM-Dearborn, she had applied several times toNASAs Microgravity University, a program where undergraduates get to conduct experiments in a low-gravity environment. The highlight is a chance to ride in the Vomit Comet NASAs modified KC-135 aircraft that flies to 33,000 feet and then sharply nose dives for 30 seconds so passengers can experience something very close to weightlessness. Snabes caught NASAs attention with her first pitch: A blood clotting experiment that proposed using herself as a test subject. The advisers wrote back they couldnt sanction a project where she cut herself, and she wouldnt have sufficient time for the blood to clot anyway. But they loved her inventiveness and encouraged her to assemble another student team and apply again. The second time, she and her group from UM-Dearborn got in. But then federal funding snags delayed their scheduled trip in the Vomit Comet. That was a big deal, because Snabes was set to graduate and the program was only for undergrads. So she postponed her graduation, enrolling in enough classes to complete a Psychology minor. Additional student loan debt was more than worth the chance to fly.

Snabes ride in the Vomit Comet stands out as one of the highlights of her life. The photo of her, arms across her chest, somersaulting in the air, a relaxed smile on her face, is still her LinkedIn profile picture. Its worth mentioning that many people dont have such a good time. The Vomit Comet is so named because most people get violently nauseous when their body is suddenly propelled into near weightlessness. (For Snabes, that didnt happen until the celebratory meal afterward in which she says she ate way too many Chinese donuts.) The reason why the moment is still so important to her is straightforward enough: Given the competitiveness of the astronaut program, she knows she might not ever get in, and spinning weightlessly for a few seconds might be the closest she ever gets to space. The mental images of it all are still thrilling and vivid, exactly the feeling you have when youre flying in a dream. Only for Snabes, she experiences it with the realness of memory.

The experience also broke open a new series of opportunities. Snabes didnt know it at the time, but NASA was looking to recruit a couple people from the program to advocate on Capitol Hill about the value of the space program to regular citizens. She was happy to do it, and in the course of that work, she learned that a life sciences group at NASAs Johnson Space Flight Center needed a strategist ideally, a hip, under 30-something, who was a successful entrepreneur, had recently exited a company, had an MBA, and is passionate about space. Having recently started an MBA through UM-Dearborns online program, Snabes resume checked all the boxes, and in the end, she didnt even have to formally interview for the job. Once she had an in at NASA, other dominos started to tumble. Her job description at the agency was so loose, it gave her carte blanche to explore almost anything that sounded interesting to her. More importantly, she was finally fully amongst her people engineers, scientists and innovators who could talk all day and all night about big ideas and how they could change the world. Her volunteer time with Engineers Without Borders (EWB) was particularly formative, and through contacts with EWB and NASA, she finally got a chance to do something she never had the money to do: travel. As the social entrepreneur in residence for NASA headquarters, she traveled to Rwanda, Nicarauga and Mexico, exploring opportunities for the agency to do more social impact work. Looking back, it was a big turning point. What I realized is that we spend a lot of time and money trying to get resources into countries, and all these brilliant people from NASA were training people on whatever solutions we had, she says. But then Id see abandoned mounds of medical equipment that were the wrong voltage or couldnt be maintained sitting outside of a hospital. For Snabes, it seemed like there had to be a better way.

Around this time, Snabes and some like-minded friends and colleagues were getting really into something that could be part of that better way. Many of the patents on key parts of 3D printing technology were expiring, allowing researchers and entrepreneurs to build on the hardware in new ways. She was particularly interested in the idea of open-source 3D printing a paradigm in which the designs, software and printing technology could be deployed inexpensively to people, allowing communities to manufacture solutions for real problems. Enabling people to make their own things at lower costs was the exact antithesis to the bigger budget aid strategies Snabes had seen falter at times. The only problem was the technology at the time was limited, particularly by size: Inexpensive 3D printers were still pretty small and could only print small things. People would be really into the idea, but then theyd ask to see an example of something you could make, and inevitably someone would have something small, like an iPhone case or a Yoda head. They were still a ways away from being able to print things folks told her they were interested in, like limb prosthetics, birthing stools, composting toilets, and tools, to name a few.

Snabes realized theyd have to literally start thinking bigger. A larger printer could print larger, more useful stuff, and hours and hours of conversations with her friends and colleagues eventually coalesced around an aspirational goal to design and build a large-format 3D printer the size of a toilet for under $10,000. At the time, she said she didnt see it as starting her next company, and in fact, she shopped the idea around at NASA and EWB first, thinking they might go for it. When it didnt find a home with either, they scored $40,000 to build a prototype, which they debuted at SXSW at the Start-up Chile tent in 2013. A writer from TechCrunch was one of the first to see it demoed and put it onthe front page of the website. In less than two days, their Kickstarter campaign was fully funded.

With the spike of unexpected interest, Snabes and her co-founder dove right into starting the business. Nowre:3Dships its large-format Gigbot printers all over the world, including a new model that can print directly from plastic waste. For every hundred they sell, they also give one away to a person or group using it for social good. Their website is full of interesting testimonials. Theres aNigerian engineer using his Gigabot to develop new filament technologyand spur micro-manufacturing. A Kenyan charity is printing parts torepair medical equipment and water distribution infrastructure. In Portland, a nonprofit is using theirs to make some prettyepic custom costumes for kids in wheelchairs.

Though re:3D has garnered a ton of attention and goodwill, Snabes is clear that the business is still firmly in the start-up phase. Competition for large-format printing has grown since they started the business, and recruiting investors for a company devoted to a social mission is a different endeavor than if they were just trying to make money. Were definitely not a high-growth company, so whether or not you see us as successful depends, I guess, on how you measure success, Snabes says. But she says it never occurs to her to doubt the mission, and feels thankful that all the unexpected plot twists in her life have led her here. I recognize that as a woman who didnt have a ton of financial resources to draw on and who didnt grow up with an expectation to go to college, things could be working out differently. Now, Ive had the chance to start two companies, and I basically get to get up everyday and do whatever I want. Thats incredibly rare, and Im really humbled that thats my life right now.

She also hasnt given up on space, and is still doing everything she can to make herself an attractive astronaut candidate. Its completely possible that given the current interest in long-range space travel, experiments with 3D-printing could well be her ticket there. And though re:3D can feel all-consuming, she still makes time to serve as a major in Mississippis Air National Guard. She enlisted 13 years ago on her lunch break at NASA partly to help pay bills, partly to make her application to the astronaut program stronger. But its since turned into a big part of her life. There are lots of stereotypes about the Guard, she says, but for her, its another community of problem solvers who ultimately want to help people. Whether its the Guard, or her 3D-printing work, or the sum of all her adventures thats the difference-maker this time, she figures she has one more good shot before shes too old to be an astronaut. However it shakes out, her hustle has already fueled a wild ride.

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UM-Dearborn graduate hopes to make it to space - Dearborn Press and Guide

Missouri Master Gardener Core ManualPatricia Hosack and Lee MillerDivision of Plant Sciences

The first and best defense against plant diseases is a healthy plant, which is the main task of an accomplished gardener. Preventing and managing plant disease begins even before planting, with site preparation and plant selection.

When a plant does not look normal, or as expected, a gardener may assume that the plant is diseased and control measures are needed. To properly diagnose plant problems, the gardener needs to have background knowledge about the plant, the current environment, and the typical diseases or other problems to which the plant is susceptible. Such information can help prevent an inaccurate diagnosis that may lead to unnecessary pesticide use, wasted time and expense, and continued plant decline.

This publication provides gardeners with information on how to establish and maintain healthy plants, and describes a systematic approach to identifying and solving problems that do occur.

A plant disease is defined as a malfunction in the plant in response to continuous irritation by an infectious causal agent, also known as a pathogen. A plant disease can cause many types of symptoms that may affect the plant's ability to yield, reproduce or grow properly.

Diagnosing a disease can sometimes be difficult, and differentiating between a true disease and an abiotic disorder is crucial to developing an effective management plan. The causal agents of plant disease are biotic, or living, and are called pathogens. Abiotic disorders are caused by abiotic, or nonliving, factors. Understanding the difference between the two is crucial to diagnosing the cause of plant damage.

Even if a disease is confirmed, the problems caused may be cosmetic or cause minor yield reduction, making costly control measures unwarranted and not worth the expense or bother. In other situations, a disease might weaken a young plant but have little effect on older, well-established plants.

Plant diseases often provide helpful clues to the underlying problems that made a plant susceptible. These problems might include poor site selection, nutrient imbalance, water stress, or improper mulching, irrigation or pruning practices. In many cases, if you can address the underlying cause of the plant's problems, the disease process will be thwarted, and the plant can regain its health and vigor to resist such problems in the future.

When control measures are required, you must decide which management techniques are most appropriate. An integrated pest management, or IPM, strategy is most prudent and effective because it involves employing a combination of management techniques. Cultural practices and plant selection are the first line of defense. Pesticides may be required and can be a part of an IPM program, but should be viewed as a last resort. Pesticides are often overused, particularly when one simply wants to solve a pest problem quickly rather than understand why it occured. When pesticides are needed, select the least toxic product that is designed for that specific plant and disease.

When pesticides are necessary, follow the recommended application methods and rates described on the pesticide label. A little extra is definitely not better when it comes to the application rate. Repeated use of some pesticides can cause the target organisms to develop resistance, which could make future applications less effective. In some cases, pesticides can also harm human health, the environment, or nontarget organisms, including birds and beneficial insects that might help keep other plant problems in check.

A triangle is often used to illustrate how plant diseases occur. A disease will only occur when three conditions are present, as represented by the three sides of the triangle (Figure 1):

A disease will only develop in the presence of all three conditions. The presence of the pathogen is the first condition, but there is considerably more to disease development. The likelihood for disease on a resistant plant is greatly minimized, so plant selection can be a key factor in disease management. Lastly, environmental conditions must be conducive for the disease to occur. These conditions allow for pathogen growth and reproduction while reducing plant vigor and predisposing the plant to infection. For example, a sun-loving plant grown in shade will be less vigorous and therefore susceptible to attack, and the shade will extend the leaf wetness period, creating favorable conditions for foliar disease.

The best management approach is to exclude any of the three conditions that form the triangle sides. Keeping these conditions in mind help will help you gain insights into plant diseases and their control.

Figure 1Plant disease occurrence triangle.A disease that has a biotic cause is only likely to occur when three conditions are present.

The disease cycle is another important concept that describes the life cycle of a pathogen and the chain of events involved in disease development (Figure 2). If the spread of inoculum can be prevented, the disease can often be managed.

A typical disease cycle includes the following events:

Depending on the disease, inocula are most commonly fungal spores, or mycelium; bacterial cells; viral particles; or individual nematodes. These can reside in seed, crop residue, soil, weeds or other crops. Inoculum may be spread by the wind, by water splashing during irrigation or rainfall, or by a human action such as pruning with infected shears. Inoculum may also be carried by vectors, often insects, that feed on an infected plant and transmit the disease to a nondiseased plant.

Pathogens in temperate climates must have a way to survive the winter when their host plants are dormant or absent. Considering how these pathogens overwinter can help identify what control measures will be most effective. In perennial plants, some pathogens can live through the winter in infected plant parts, such as roots, bulbs, stems and bud scales. Pathogens that infect annual plants must form resistant resting structures, survive in seeds or vectors, or spread from warmer regions where the host plants grow during the winter.

Common rust of sweet corn, Puccinia sorghi, is an example of a disease spread by wind. This fungal disease does not survive long outside of living plant tissue. Because sweet corn plants do not live through cold Midwestern winters, most of the sweet corn rust inoculum (as fungal spores) blows north each season from living corn plants in the South. Thus, an understanding of how much inoculum is present in the South influences management decisions farther north.

Insect pollinators aid the spread of fire blight of apple and pear caused by the bacterium Erwinia amylovora. The bacteria overwinter in the margins of old cankers, and exude from the stem in rain. A bee or other pollinator species may pick up the bacteria and serve as a vector, introducing the pathogen to a new plant through the flower. Although trying to control the vector is unwise, the old cankers can be carefully pruned out and disposed of to limit the initial source of inoculum.

Figure 2Example of a disease cycle.Typical disease cycle of anthracnose caused by Gnomia spp.

Abiotic plant disorders are not directly associated with a living organism, but instead are damage caused by a physical, environmental or chemical factor. Often, samples received by plant diagnostic centers have problems that are primarily caused by an abiotic factor. Many other plant samples do have a plant disease or pest problem, but also have an underlying abiotic disorder that made the plant more susceptible. For example, many plants have distinct habitat preferences and will easily develop problems if grown in an unsuitable location. In such circumstances, abiotic factors will make a plant more susceptible to infection by the biotic disease organisms discussed in the next section.

People, rather than insects or diseases, are often responsible for a plant's problems. Plant problems caused by people can be categorized as physical or mechanical. These problems include poor planting methods that allow limited area for root growth, improper mulching, construction-related injury, soil compaction, girdling of stems or trunks, or improper pruning. For example, plants should be pruned in the fall, just prior to dormancy. Pruning during the growing season can injure the plant and, if infected purning shears are used, introduce a pathogen to the open wound.

Storms that produce high winds, heavy snow, or ice can cause considerable tree damage. Damage from hail or lightning strikes can kill trees, crops and ornamental plants. However, plant death resulting from a moderate weather event is often the sign of a preexisting condition.

In some cases, physical problems can be corrected and the plant will recover. For example, proper pruning to remove torn limbs might allow a tree to recover from minor damage after a storm. Plants that were given a bad start through incorrect planting methods, however, often cannot be saved. By the time symptoms appear, you may be unable to address the cause and restore plant vigor.

Environmental factors are the most common source of a plant disorder. Often, symptoms develop on one side of the plant, or group of plants, based on where stress occurred (Figure 3). Other times the entire plant may be affected.

Extremes in temperature and moisture are common environmental culprits. Drought stress can cause leaf scorch, leaf drop or even branch dieback. Cold injury in winter can cause leaf burn and dieback of evergreens. When the soil is saturated for many days during the growing season, plants may develop yellowed foliage because of the lack of oxygen in the soil or poor nutrient uptake from nonfunctioning roots.

Too much or too little shade is a typical problem. For example, hydrangeas commonly wilt and scorch when they are not mulched and watered carefully to keep the soil moist during dry conditions. They do best in a location with afternoon shade that alleviates the effect of high summer temperatures. In contrast, lilacs or junipers will be stunted if planted in too much shade.

Certain plants have a fairly specific range of soil conditions in which they thrive. These plants will have problems if grown in soil that has a nutrient imbalance or an improper pH. The interplay between soil pH and nutrient availability is important for plant growth, so a complete soil test can be helpful in diagnosing a potential plant disorder. Pin oak and blueberries, for example, like acidic soils and commonly develop leaf chlorosis when the soil pH is neutral or alkaline. Conversely, soils that are exceedingly alkaline may become deficient in nutrients such as iron and zinc. Also, if you fertilize every year with a complete fertilizer containing nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), the P or K may eventually build up in the soil and interfere with uptake of other micronutrients, such as magnesium, manganese and iron. Thus, fertilizer applications of most nutrients (other than nitrogen) should be made based on a soil test.

Generally, plants have a limited geographic range where they will grow and perform well. Many plants are simply poor choices for temperate Midwestern growing conditions or for the specific site where they are planted. In such cases, manipulating environmental conditions, applying pesticides or attempting other control measures may still not result in a healthy plant. Selecting plants well suited to the local environment gives you the best chance of having thriving, disease-resistant plantings. Become familiar with the plant zone you live in (see "plant hardiness zone maps" under related websites). In Missouri, these zones have shifted significantly in the past 15 years, with most of Missouri now in Zone 6.

Figure 3Symptoms of abiotic plant injury.Injury from nonliving, environmental factors typically occurs on one side or area of a plant or group of plants.

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Nontarget effects from chemicals in the environment may also cause abiotic disorders in plants. Pesticide and, more specifically, herbicide injury is the most common cause of phytotoxicity, with symptoms varying depending on the product used. The most common symptoms are leaf cupping and distortion caused by either spray drift on foliage or root uptake by ornamentals and vegetables. Broadleaf weed killers applied to nearby lawns or crop fields can cause sudden decline in sensitive crops, such as tomatoes or peppers, and can cause leaf curling in ornamental trees when applied incorrectly (Figure 4).

Other chemical causes of abiotic injury include ice-melting salts or air pollutants. Ice-melting salts that wash off sidewalks and streets onto plants and soil often cause severe wilting or browning of leaf margins of trees, shrubs or turfgrass. Air pollutants that damage plants include sulfur dioxide and hydrogen fluoride from industrial sources. Incompletely burned hydrocarbons released from automobiles in heavily populated areas can result in production of both ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate, known as PAN. These harmful gases enter plants through the stomata and cause a characteristic flecking or bronzing of leaves.

Figure 4Growth regulator herbicide injury to a maple following an improper herbicide application.

Fungi are the most common causal agent of plant disease. These microscopic organisms lack chlorophyll and are visible as mats of threadlike filaments called hypha that make up the mycelium, which are "resting structures" that include rhizomorphs and sclerotia. Many fungi reproduce by spores and produce conspicuous fruiting bodies that can aid in identification. These fruiting bodies are called the signs of the pathogen.

In the diagnostic lab, fungi are often identified by their growth patterns, spores or other structures. The first step is to examine infected plant tissue for signs of the pathogen with a hand lens or under the microscope. Because fungi are not always visible on plant surfaces, a lab may then test a sample by placing the affected tissue on a petri plate that contains a nutrient medium. If fungi are present, they may grow and produce the signs necessary for identification.

Fungal organisms cause various types of injury to plants. Typical fungal symptoms include seed rot, seedling blights, root and crown rots, vascular wilts, leaf spots, rusts, cankers, and stem and twig blights.

On leaves, fungi often cause lesions, or spots. The appearance within the lesions of mycelium, spores or small black dots visible with a hand lens indicates a potential fungal disease. Not all leaf spots require control measures. Fungal leaf spots can be managed by growing resistant cultivars or using cultural practices that limit the development of disease. Limiting overhead irrigation, and therefore leaf wetness duration, is an effective cultural practice for minimizing the occurrence of leaf spot diseases.

Blights the complete death of a plant structure, such as leaves, flowers or stems may result from many lesions that form quickly and merge. Blight diseases often occur rapidly and cause severe damage. One well-known historical example is late blight, a disease of tomatoes and potatoes that attacks stems and leaves, potato tubers and tomato fruits. This disease played a major role in the Irish famine that caused a wave of emigration during the 1800s. Cultural control measures, resistant varieties and fungicides are used to manage fungal blights.

Rots can occur on most plant parts but are most commonly seen in roots, stems and fruits. The rot that results from seedlings being attacked by soilborne fungi is commonly called damping-off. Damping-off occurs most frequently in a contaminated growing medium that is too wet. Careful watering practices and the use of sterile pots and uncontaminated, soilless seedling mixes are the most practical and effective preventives for root and stem rots. Do not reuse potting soil.

Cankers appear as sunken areas or spots where the bark is rough, missing or swollen. Sometimes sap will ooze from these areas, and a raised ring of callus material appears as the plant tries to protect the damaged area and limit disease spread. If the canker surrounds, or girdles, the stem completely, the stem or branch above will die. Canker diseases are difficult to manage. To slow their development and spread, practice good horticultural care to reduce plant stress and remove affected branches.

Vascular wilts are caused when fungi grow inside the plant vascular, or fluid-conducting, tissue, causing these tissues die. The leaves and branches. wilt and die from a lack of nutrients and water, with symptoms similar to those caused by drought. Dark streaks may be visible in the vascular tissues where fungi are active. Plants with severe vascular wilt infections usually cannot be saved, but adjacent plants can sometimes be protected with fungicide injections.

Bacteria are single-celled organisms that lack chlorophyll and reproduce by cell division. Bacterial cells often multiply quickly and clump together to form colonies. Thus bacterial diseases can begin suddenly and quickly become severe. Some types of bacteria are easily moved around in leaves and cause leaf spots. Others can multiply rapidly in the vascular system and plug it up, causing wilting and dieback. Bacterial diseases are difficult to manage because few chemical controls antibiotics, in this case are available and bacteria often rapidly develop resistance to them.

Some types of bacteria cause tumorlike galls. Crown gall is a common disease of many plants that occurs when soilborne bacteria cause lumpy swellings on roots and the lower stems (Figure 5). It may be seen on euonymus, grape vines, roses and fruit trees. Infection often occurs where a plant has been wounded or weakened. Cultural practices such as good sanitation and avoidance of wounding by mower or weed trimmer use can help prevent crown gall.

Several foliar diseases can be caused by bacteria. For example, leaf lesions and blight can develop, and sometimes a yellow halo may form around the margin of leaf lesions indicating a plant toxin. In some instances, the tissue falls out of the leaf, which gives it a shot-hole or ragged appearance. Under a microscope, bacterial ooze from a lesion may be evident. This ooze contains millions of bacteria that easily splash to healthy leaves in water droplets. The bacteria may enter plants through natural openings such as stomata or hydathodes in or through wounds.

Some bacterial diseases cause blights, such as fire blight, a common disease of apples, pears and related species in the Midwest. Typical symptoms include wilted shoot tips, where succulent new shoots droop, forming a characteristic shepherd's crook, and tips turn black as they dry. Fire blight infections are typically most active in spring when insects spread the infection as they pollinate flowers. The bacteria can enter plants through nectarthodes in blossoms. Splashing rain and pruning or other wounding events can also spread the disease. To manage fire blight, use good cultural practices and select resistant cultivars.

Bacteria can also cause soft rots of fruits, vegetables, tubers and bulbs. Rots can cause rapid decline in crop quality. Affected plants often have a strong odor and mushy tissues that appear melted. Avoid mechanical injury both before and after harvest, and practice strict sanitation to help reduce the incidence of soft rots.

Plant pathogenic bacteria can be difficult to kill when protected inside the plant. To protect healthy plants, you can manipulate environmental conditions, remove infected plants, or apply protectant pesticides. Good sanitation practices are especially important to prevent problems, because a single infected seed can result in an entire tray or even an entire greenhouse of diseased plants. Antibiotics are not normally recommended for home garden use because of the potential for antibiotic resistance.

Figure 5Crown gall symptoms. Crown gall is caused by Agrobacterium and related bacteria. The lumpy swellings typical of the disease are usually seen on roots or lower stems.

Virus particles consist of a small amount of genetic material within a protective protein coat called a capsid. Viruses are so small that individual particles cannot be seen with a common light microscope. When a plant cell becomes infected with a virus, that cell replicates new viral particles that prevent normal plant cell function.

Diagnosis of viral diseases can be challenging. Visual identification is difficult, and advanced identification techniques are expensive. Typical viral symptoms include stunting and chlorosis, as well as mottling, puckering, ring spotting and mosaic patterns in leaves. In the lab, virus species may sometimes be identified by their physical characteristics when viewed at extreme magnification with a high-powered electron microscope. In other cases, advanced serological or genetic testing of plant sap is needed to confirm diagnosis.

Viruses are spread by infected seed or pollen, poor sanitation when handling or pruning plants, or vectors. The mode of transmission depends on the type of virus, but most commonly arthropods, such as aphids or mites, serve as a vector. Unfortunately, there is no cure for viral diseases. If the virus causes severe symptoms and has potential to spread to nearby plants of the same species, the infected plants should be destroyed. Other control measures include destroying nearby weedy hosts, practicing good sanitation techniques during pruning and propagation, and managing insect vectors.

Phytoplasmas are essentially tiny, specialized bacteria that lack cell walls. They can be difficult to identify because they only survive and reproduce in living plant tissue. They cannot be isolated and cultured in a laboratory. An electron microscope is needed to detect structures of phytoplasmas in the cells of host plants. For many years, diseases caused by these organisms were thought to result from viruses, because the symptoms appear very similar.

Aster yellows is a phytoplasma-caused disease that affects many landscape and garden plants. Affected plants often develop stunted, malformed plant structures and appear chlorotic, or yellowish. Unfortunately, like viral diseases, plant diseases caused by phytoplasma have no cure. Control measures include removal of the infected plants and nearby weedy hosts, and control of leaf hoppers and other insects that may act as vectors.

Nematodes are unsegmented, microscopic roundworms that generally have a threadlike form. Nematodes are the most numerically abundant animal on Earth, and luckily not all nematodes are parasites or harmful to plants. Some are beneficial and kill plant pests, whereas others feed on bacteria or decaying matter. A plant parasitic nematode has a needlelike stylet, which is a tubelike structure that can pierce plant cells to withdraw nutrients.

Some nematodes live inside plants. One example is the pine wilt nematode that is responsible for the death of many Scots pines across the Midwest. Trees become infected when the vector, the pine sawyer beetle, feeds on the tree and also transmits the nematode. Affected trees quickly turn brown and should be destroyed to prevent infection of nearby healthy trees. To confirm the presence of pine wilt nematodes, a plant diagnostic clinic can test a portion of a large branch or tree trunk.

Nematodes that live in the soil sometimes cause severe plant damage. In Missouri, the root-knot nematode is prevalent in the southeast area of the state. In recent years, this nematode has been found farther north into central Missouri, perhaps because winters have been mild by historical standards. This nematode causes swollen knots at infected sites on the roots of a wide variety of plants, including certain fruits, vegetables and ornamentals.

Commercial growers can use soil fumigants to manage nematodes in the soil, but homeowners have few management options. Sanitation is important because nematodes are easily spread with infested soil or plant material. Dirty gardening tools, such as shovels or tillers with infested soil, can spread nematodes to new areas. Luckily, nematode damage is not a widespread problem for home gardeners in Missouri.

To accurately diagnose a plant problem and find its remedy may seem like a daunting task. In some cases, identification may require help from plant disease specialists. Before turning to the experts, however, attempt to make a diagnosis yourself. At the very least, gather evidence on potential symptoms, signs and potential abiotic stress. Even if the result is not definite, the process is a learning experience that will provide useful information.

When diagnosing plant problems, pay close attention to detail when collecting information, like a detective attempting to solve a crime. Items that are most helpful include a 10-times-magnification hand lens, digital camera, trowel, pruning shears, pocketknife, flashlight and something to keep notes on. Establish a location to keep records and reference materials.

Determine the most likely cause by following these five steps:

First, know the plant. Every species, variety or cultivar has a unique set of characteristics that often provide important clues to identifying the source of a problem. For potential abiotic disorders, consider the plant's preferences for soil and climatic factors such as pH, nutrient requirements, soil type, moisture level, light intensity, and temperature. Also realize that each plant species, and even different cultivars, may have plant diseases that are specific and troublesome.

If the identity of a plant is unknown, you can consult references such as those suggested at the back of this guide, or any available gardening or landscape records. Garden centers usually have someone who can help identify a plant if you bring in a stem with several leaves. Local extension centers or the University of Missouri Plant Diagnostic Clinic can also be a good resource. Most states provide similar services.

References can help you determine whether a plant is located on a site that matches its requirements. For example, a flowering dogwood tree is adapted to a woodland understory environment with excellent drainage. It is unlikely to thrive if planted in a poorly drained soil or on a south-facing slope in full sun. If the tree survives in such circumstances, it is likely to develop leaf scorch and damage from dogwood borers attracted to the stressed tree. Such problems often result from an unsuitable planting site and are unlikely to be resolved with pesticides or other treatments.

Read plant descriptions and observe other plants of the species, variety or cultivar to determine the normal appearance for the plant. Sometimes a natural feature of the plant is mistaken for a symptom. For example, someone unfamiliar with the 'Golden Vicary' privet might mistake this cultivar's yellow leaf color for a sign of nitrogen deficiency. Similarly, a plant with a splotchy pattern on a leaf may be a variegated cultivar. A gardener unfamiliar with paperbark maple might be alarmed to see sheets of bark peeling from the trunk of a specimen, though it is a normal process for this plant. Conversely, bark peeling from the lower trunk of a red maple would be a legitimate cause for concern.

It can also help to observe other plants of the same species of roughly the same age and at the same time of year as the sample being evaluated. For example, during hot, dry weather, mature river birch trees often drop a significant portion of their leaves as a drought-survival mechanism. For pines, yellowing of the interior needles in the fall is likely to be part of the normal process of shedding 2- or 3-year-old leaves.

Like all living organisms, plants have life spans, with some having longer ones than others. A bur oak may live 300 years, but it is relatively rare to find a redbud older than 30. Trees late in their expected life spans often succumb to trunk decay, root rots, stem-boring insects or other pests that normally do not attack young, vigorously growing plants. If a plant has reached its normal life expectancy, you can only do so much before having to remove and replace it.

Learn the common problems that affect the plant in question. Good reference materials can help as you match your observations with descriptions or photographs of typical plant diseases, and their related symptoms and signs.

A diagnostician learns to look for indications of problems that commonly affect certain species. Tall fescue is commonly damaged by brown patch, whereas Kentucky bluegrass is more frequently damaged by Pythium blight or dollar spot. Austrian pine trees are often affected by Diplodia pinea (also known as Sphaeropsis sapinea), a fungal tip blight that kills needles near the tips of lower branches. Zinnias, lilacs and zucchini are all commonly afflicted by powdery mildew. Red maple trees often display a leaf distortion caused by leaf hoppers. They also frequently suffer from chlorosis, indicated by yellow leaves with green veins, a condition that is frequently due to high-pH soil with little available manganese and iron. Learning these relationships may come from online or library research, discussion with someone at your garden center or plant source, or from the hard teachings of experience.

Observe carefully to determine whether a plant problem has been caused by a living, biotic, organism or by some type of nonliving, abiotic, factor. By studying the cultural preferences of plants and looking for patterns in the landscape, you may be able to determine the cause of the plant damage.

Other than a characteristic plant symptom or pathogen sign, several clues may help determine if the problem is the result of a plant disease rather than an abiotic disorder (Table 1).

Table 1Distinguishing between biotic and abiotic factors in plant damage.

Understanding symptoms and signs and the differences between them will help with disease diagnosis and allow for discussion with others. Symptoms are the plant's response to infection, or the signals that a plant is not functioning properly. Typical symptoms include leaf lesions, chlorosis, or malformed plant tissues. Signs are the visible parts of the pathogen or pest that caused the symptoms. Signs of a pathogen may include mold on the plant surface; spores; pycnidia, which are small flask-shaped structures that contain spores; or bacterial ooze.

Consider a typical blue spruce in Missouri. A common disease of this species is Rhizosphaera needlecast. To confirm the disease, you would first look for symptoms. Specifically, you would see the dead needles at the lower portions of the branches, because the disease attacks mature needles. Other diseases can also cause older needles of blue spruce to drop, so at this point, you would use a hand lens to further examine the brown or dropped needles, looking for signs of the fungus. Healthy spruce needles have rows of stomata that appear as white dots. In a tree with Rhizosphaera needlecast, pycnidia, which appear as small black bumps, emerge from the stomata (). Another fungal disease, Stigmina needle blight, also produces fungal structures in the pycnidia. However, these two diseases are managed similarly, with pruning and, in severe cases, preventive fungicides.

Figure 6Example of symptoms and signs.This spruce has browning needles and defoliation (left). The pathogen attacks mature, at least 1-year-old, needles, so the new growth at the tip is unaffected. On close inspection of the needles, numerous pycnidia can be seen emerging from the stomata (right).

Using the five steps described above to diagnose plant problems is like putting together a puzzle (Figure 7). If you can find enough pieces and fit them together, you will often see a logical picture emerge. Sometimes this process is called the guess-and-confirm method. With practice and experience, diagnosis becomes progressively easier.

Good reference materials can be a great help in the process. Sources of information and pictures include websites, textbooks, extension publications and professional and trade journals. Related MU Extension publications are listed at the end of this publication.

If a plant disease problem still has you stumped after following the steps to diagnosis, you might decide to call on experts. You could take a sample to a local garden store or extension center, where a quick consultation might answer your questions. You could also send a sample to a plant diagnostic laboratory.

To identify plant diseases and disorders, diagnostic labs use a variety of techniques. In many cases, diagnosis will be relatively simple because the lab is familiar with the problem, having previously seen many plants with the same disease.

With a more challenging sample, or when identifying an unfamiliar disease, a diagnostician may use a taxonomic approach that includes the main steps of isolating the suspect pathogen, identifying it, and then confirming it is the causal agent of disease. Using this approach can be time-consuming and incur additional testing fees. Sometimes a lab uses other advanced testing methods or sends a sample for retesting at another plant clinic that specializes in certain techniques or specific pathogens.

Figure 7Plant disease puzzle.To accurately diagnose a plant disease, a gardner must consider many factors that could be causing the disorder.

Most states have a university or state plant diagnostic lab. The University of Missouri has the Plant Diagnostic Clinic (see related websites). You can obtain the appropriate submission form to submit with a sample on the clinic's website or from your local extension center. The form asks for detailed information. To aid in a quick and accurate diagnosis, fill out the form as completely as possible.

The quality of the sample is crucial. When submitting small plants, it helps to include several samples that show a range of symptoms from the healthy to the severely damaged. When possible, submit an entire plant. If that is not practical, examine the different parts of the plant for all possible symptoms and signs, and submit portions that represent the observed problems. Sometimes the problem is different or more extensive than it first appears to be. For example, an accurate diagnosis of a problem first observed as foliar damage on leaves could result from an impairment of other parts of the plant such as the trunk or roots.

To aid in accurate diagnosis, keep the plant material as fresh as possible during shipping. To prevent decay of the sample, ship samples early in the week to avoid delay over the weekend. Most diagnostic clinics are located on university campuses that do not receive mail on the weekend. If you are collecting a sample over the weekend, store it in a cooler and ship it early the next week. Fresh samples sent through the mail generally arrive in good condition when they are wrapped in dry paper towels or newspaper and enclosed in a box with packing materials to prevent movement. Do not wrap samples in damp packaging material, as doing so frequently results in a moldy mess by the time the sample reaches the clinic, which wastes time and money for the sender and the recipient alike.

The National Plant Diagnostic Network was created to address concerns about bioterrorism after the events of Sept. 11, 2001. The goal is to establish a national network of diagnostic laboratories to rapidly and accurately detect and report pathogens, pests and weeds of national interest.

The plant diagnostic clinic at the University of Missouri is part of this network and receives funding and training opportunities to improve detection and identification of pests and pathogens. Every diagnosis made by the clinic, and by the other labs in the network, is collected in a national database. This database allows scientists to quickly determine where a specific pest or pathogen is occuring and how widespread that organism has become.

Integrated pest management, known as IPM, is considered the best approach to maximize the success of management techniques and to minimize costs including economic, environmental and potentially even health costs. Methods to manage plant disease primarily depend on the biology of the specific pathogen and the host plants.

The gardener who inspects plants frequently and identifies problems when they first begin to develop will often have a wider selection of effective management options. Keep in mind that more than one method may be needed to effectively manage a specific problem.

Common approaches to manage plant diseases include five main types of controls:

A regulatory approach to managing plant diseases is often based on exclusion, or using a quarantine to prevent the spread of a disease into new areas. Exotic diseases or pests pose a significant threat to wildlife in a new region. Pathogens and hosts coevolve, meaning as they change over time, each affects the other's evolution. Coevolution allows for some innate immunity in the host population so a disease does not wipe it out. When a new pathogen is brought into an area, the native plants may have no defenses against it. Similarly, an introduced pest does not have natural predators in the new area to keep its population in check. For these two reasons, exotic or invasive pests can have a profound and damaging impact on an ecosystem.

For example, if you have ever flown to a location such as California or Hawaii, you may have noticed measures taken at airports to prohibit transport of fruit and other agricultural or horticultural products that could harbor pests and diseases. So far, successful quarantine efforts have kept an aggressive strain of the bacterial wilt pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum from entering the United States. This disease could severely impact the country's production of solanaceous crops, including tomatoes and potatoes. Bacterial wilt inoculum was accidentally brought into the U.S. on flower cuttings shipped from Kenya and Guatemala, but the disease was quickly detected and eradicated before it could begin to become established here.

Another current quarantine aims to check the spread of sudden oak death, a new disease on the West Coast that has been damaging forests in California. In addition to killing oaks, it causes a blight of many other trees and shrubs, and it has infected nursery stock. Whenever infected stock is found, the plants must be destroyed and nearby plants must be isolated and watched for symptoms. If the disease should arrive in the Midwest, it could severely damage our landscapes.

Breeding for disease resistance uses genetics to prevent disease. Resistance refers to an ability to exclude or overcome infection by a particular pathogen. Many crops and ornamental plant species are bred for disease resistance, creating a new cultivar or variety that provides better performance. Gardeners can select varieties that can resist common diseases, such as roses with black spot resistance or crab apples with resistance to apple scab.

Keep in mind, however, that a plant considered resistant to one disease might be highly susceptible to other diseases or pest problems. For example, certain roses that are highly resistant to the common fungal leaf disease black spot are often still susceptible to other leaf spotting diseases, viruses and other problems.

Also, a disease resistant plant may still be infected if a genetic variant, or race, of the pathogen is present. Plant resistance may also break down if environmental stresses are present that limit the plant's defense mechanism. For example, tomato varieties resistant to Fusarium wilt may still develop the disease under highly favorable environmental conditions or when another race of the fungus is present in the soil.

Although the interactions may be complex, host resistance is the most long-lasting and environmentally responsible method of disease control, and therefore one to strive for. Proper plant selection, whether it be a different variety within a species, or a completely different plant species altogether, can save management or replacement costs in the long run. Before planting, do research to determine the best plant to establish, weighing the potential environment, disease and pest pressures that may be placed on it.

Cultural disease management strategies are long-practiced methods that prevent the conditions for diseases and other pests to become established. These practices, based on good sanitation and husbandry, often rely on a general knowledge of plants and their problems. Combining a variety of cultural control techniques often works better than using a single method.

Abiotic disorders are caused by the environment, and therefore cultural practices that mitigate or remove that stress should be employed. For example, if a lawn is being scalped or stressed by low mowing, raise the mower deck.

Controlling plant diseases with cultural practices involves a combination of preventing the conducive environment for pathogen growth and improving the growing conditions for maximum plant health. In most cases, gardeners should employ a multitude of cultural practices to produce healthy, disease-free plants that grow vigorously. A few examples are noted below.

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Preventing and Managing Plant Diseases | MU Extension