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Missouri Master Gardener Core ManualDavid Trinklein, Division of Plant Sciences

Plants are living organisms that contain chlorophyll and use it to manufacture their own food. Their cell walls are more or less rigid and support both the individual cells and the whole structure. Even when plants have reached what we regard as their full, mature size, they continue to expand and develop new leaves, flowers, fruit and shoots.

Unlike animals, plants cannot move when the environment changes. They are at the mercy of the climate and the gardener because they are rooted in place. Even though it appears that many plants, especially larger ones, are quite tolerant of change, they sometimes do not show adverse effects until long after the event. For example, tree roots are often damaged or killed by suffocation during building projects or flooding. An established tree may still have strength to leaf out and may appear to thrive for several years. But in its weakened state, the tree is more likely to blow down, become infested or simply decline.

To understand why plants respond as they do to natural influences and to cultivation, gardeners must understand something about their structure and how they grow. This publication provides such an introduction.

Gardeners tend to group plants by their horticultural uses: fruits, vegetables, flowers, trees, shrubs, turf and so on. These categories are a convenient way to think and learn about plants.

Plants can also be categorized by the length of their life cycles. Annual, biennial and perennial are terms that describe how long a plant will live and also indicate when it is likely to bloom.

AnnualAn annual plant's entire life cycle from seed germination to seed production occurs in one growing season, and then the plant dies. Many flowering plants that we consider to be annuals are not annuals in their native habitats. They would continue to grow and flower in future years if freezing temperatures did not kill them. Tuberous begonia (Begonia tuberhybrida) is an example of an ornamental plant treated as an annual in the Midwest, although it is a perennial in the southern states.

Annuals may be further subdivided into summer and winter annuals:

BiennialA biennial plant starts from seed and produces vegetative structures and food storage organs in its first full season. A rosette of basal leaves persists through winter. During the second season, the plant's life cycle is completed with flowers, fruit and seed. The plant then usually dies. These plants will often reseed themselves. Examples of biennials are carrots, beets, cabbage, celery, onions, hollyhock, Canterbury bells and Sweet William.

Sometimes plants that typically develop as biennials may complete their entire cycle of growth from seed germination to seed production in only one growing season. Conditions of drought, unusual variations in temperature or other climatic changes can cause the plant to pass through the physiological equivalent of two full growing seasons in one year.

PerennialA perennial plant is a plant that lives for more than two years. Typically, perennials die back in the fall and return in the spring because of some sort of overwintering structure, such as a rhizome or crown. Examples include flowers such as daylilies, blackeyed-susan and coneflower; and vegetables such as asparagus and rhubarb.. Plants often characterized as weeds such as common milkweed and morning glory are also perennials.

Perennials are classified in various ways:

The structure and appearance of plants' flowers, leaves, fruit and seed play a large part in how we think of them and also provide useful information about their classification. For example, the flowers of a daisy indicate a probable relationship with other plants that have similar flowers. The majority of grasses are easily recognized by their long leaf blades.

More than 500,000 different kinds of plants and plantlike organisms exist in the world. Of these, the flowering plants classified as angiosperms are the most abundant and familiar to us. Gymnosperms are the other main group of seed-bearing plants. There are also more primitive plants such as mosses and ferns that reproduce by spores.

AngiospermsAngiosperms have seeds encased in closed ovaries that become plants' familiar fruits, pods, grains or capsules. They represent virtually all crop plants and those we think of as flowers.

The angiosperms are further classified into two groups according to the number of seed leaves, called cotyledons, that emerge from a germinating seed:

GymnospermsGymnosperms are plants that develop exposed or naked seeds. These include the coniferous plants such as fir, pine and spruce. Ginkgo and the tropical cycads are also gymnosperms.

Modern plant taxonomy is based on a system developed by the Swedish physician and botanist Carl von Linn, who later changed his name to Carlos Linneaus. His classification is based on the flowers and reproductive parts of a plant. Because these are the parts of a plant least influenced by environmental changes, this system has been found to be the best.

Grouping plants with similar botanical structure helps us to understand how they are related to one another. Close relatives often have similar pest problems. Botanical similarities may also show, for example, how long certain plants can be expected to live and why they react as they do to certain conditions. In addition, their botanical, Latin or "proper" names help to avoid confusion when the same or similar common names exist for different plants.

Each plant is assigned two names. The genus or generic name can be likened to a person's last name, as in "Doe." The specific epithet or species name is that person's given name, "Jane" or "John." This combination of two names is the plant's botanical, scientific or Latin name.

For example, the botanical name for sugar maple is Acer saccharum (pronounced AY-ser sa-KAH-rum). The genus name Acer is a classical (Latin) name. The genus name for the Indian bean tree Catalpa is a Native American name. Other botanical names provide descriptions of the flower: for example, Antirrhinum (snapdragon) is from the Greek anti, which means "like," and rhinos meaning nose or snout. One familiar genus is Narcissus (daffodil) named for the mythological character who was turned into this flower when he drowned attempting to reach the person he saw reflected in a pool of water.

Specific epithets may have similar descriptive value, such as rubra for red and major for large or larger. In the sugar maple example, the word saccharum is from the Latin for sugar cane, and it is similar to words we know that mean sweet. Some species commemorate a botanist or plant explorer. The late 18th century Swedish naturalist Carl Peter Thunberg introduced many Asian plants. He is remembered in plant names, including the species Berberis thunbergii, the Japanese barberry, and a genus of the warm-climate, climbing blackeyed-susan, Thunbergia.

Words in many complete Latin names include botanical variety, subspecies and cultivar. These build upon the basic binomial naming system to further separate individuals that differ from one another in, for instance, flower color or growth habit. They are not so different as to require new specific names.

Botanical classification of four plants

Every living organism plant, animal, insect and so forth can be classified into the following categories or taxa:

For plants, the kingdom is Plantae and division is Tracheophyta. Class is usually either Angiospermae or Gymnospermae, the angiosperms and gymnosperms that make up most of our cultivated plants. At the subclass and order level, further groupings of similar plants are named.

FamilyA family of plants shares similar characteristics. For example, the spring-flowering magnolia trees, whose deciduous forms are best known in the north, and the evergreen southern forms are in the same family, not surprisingly called Magnoliaceae. Different magnolia specimens can be "keyed out" using a botanical key. The combination of characteristics that identify this family are enclosed ovules, flowers that are not catkins, flowers with calyces, clear and separate "distinct" carpels (reproductive portion of flower), overlapping or imbricate sepals, and alternate, simple leaves.

In another example, peas belong to a large family of legumes called Fabaceae (formerly named Leguminosae). The edible pea flower is shaped much like the flower of a tree in the same family commonly referred to as redbud (Cercis canadensis). All legumes have similar flowers and fruiting structures even though they may be vastly different in form. Other legumes include alfalfa, beans, clover, honeylocust, Kentucky coffee tree, Siberian pea shrub and wisteria.

What do roses have in common with apple trees? They are members of the same family, Rosaceae. Their fruits are pomes. Plants in this family share susceptibility to the same diseases. For example, pears and roses are susceptible to fire blight, and both are subject to mildew during humid weather. Other plants in the Rosaceae family include cotoneaster, spirea, juneberry, quince and mountain ash.

GenusWhen groups of similar plants are categorized into families, the next lower level of classification is the genus. Plants in the same genus often share similar fruits, flowers, roots, stems, buds and leaves. The genus name is always capitalized and italicized or underlined. Examples:

SpeciesSpecific definition comes with the species name, or specific epithet. At this level, marked features that are carried from generation to generation distinguish the group. Specific names are not capitalized, but they are italicized or underlined. Examples:

Variety (botanical), subspecies, formSometimes the specific name is followed by a botanical variety, subspecific name or form that denotes a fairly consistent, naturally occurring variation within the species. This second specific name is preceded by the abbreviation var., ssp., or forma (f.).

Examples

Cultivar (short for cultivated variety)A cultivar is a group of plants that is clearly distinguished by certain characteristics that may be morphological (structural), physiological (functional), cytological (cellular) or chemical. The differences do not have to be visual for a variation to gain cultivar status perhaps it is simply more hardy or disease resistant. When a plant is reproduced asexually (by cloning), it retains these distinguishing characteristics.

Cultivar names are always capitalized within single quotes or preceded by the abbreviation cv. In the nursery industry, the cultivar name is recognized as a plant's official name.

Examples

Along with cultivar designation, recent new cultivars may have other assigned names that are often trademarked (Golden NuggetAA dwarf Japanese barberry, Berberis thunbergii 'Monlers')

More plant identification termsSeveral more terms may be used to define particular plants or plant groups:

Dichotomous plant keys are used to identify plants through a series of choices between pairs of alternatives. Each pair refers to a specific plant characteristic such as arrangement of leaves on the stem, type of leaf margin or type of fruit. By selecting the option that accurately describes the plant, you will be led to the next choices until you determine the genus or species.

If a result is ambiguous, final verification can be made by comparison with a known example of that species. In their detailed comparisons, plant taxonomists often use preserved specimens stored in an herbarium.

Reference books for specific types of plants, such as ferns, wildflowers or shrubs, frequently contain their own specialized plant keys. Try to use keys that employ botanical rather than common names. Common names can be confusing for several reasons: one plant may have several common names; the common name for a plant often differs from one region to another; and the same common name can also apply to more than one plant. Botanical names, by contrast, are unique and relatively permanent.

Several major plant keys are available, including the following:

Figure 1Plant cell.

The plant cell is the basic organizational unit of plants (Figure 1). Each living plant cell contains a nucleus that controls all of the chemical activities in the cell. Within the nucleus, division of the DNA provides the way for the cell to pass on heritable information from one generation of cells to the next.

Cytoplasm is the other main part of the living plant cell. It is composed of many cell structures (organelles), water, pigments, sugar and various minerals. The cytoplasm is bound by a plasma membrane that regulates the flow of water and nutrients into and out of the cell.

The plant's cell wall is one of the fundamental differences between plant and animal cells. The somewhat rigid cell wall is made up of a number of chemical compounds, primarily the carbohydrate cellulose.

The second major difference between plant and animal cells is that many plant cells contain the green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is contained in chloroplasts, where photosynthesis, the food manufacturing process, takes place. A chloroplast is a type of organelle known as a plastid. There are also plastids that contain pigments other than chlorophyll.

Plant cells can have specialized functions, and there are many cell types. Plant cells are largely made up of water held within the vacuole, which exerts a pressure against the rigid cell wall. This pressure, called turgor pressure, gives the plant shape and structure. When insufficient water is available in the plant to maintain this pressure, the plant begins to droop or wilt.

Individual cells work together to form the whole plant. Tissues are organized groups of cells that are similar in appearance and function. An organ is a group of tissues that accomplishes a common function. Plants have two organ systems: roots and shoots. Shoots, in turn, have two main organs: leaves and stems. These organs are made up of various tissues that are called meristematic, which may be dermal or vascular.

Meristematic tissues are sites of cellular activity and division. This is where all of the cell division takes place. Meristematic tissues give rise to the other tissue systems and are named for their location. Animal tissues do not have these specific sites of cell division rather, all animal cells can divide to create new tissues.

An apical meristem is located at the apex, or tip, of a shoot or root. The lateral meristems exist in the stems and roots of many plants. They help the plant grow in thickness or diameter. The vascular cambium is a lateral meristem that forms new xylem (water-conducting) cells on the inside and new phloem (food-conducting) cells on the outside. Active cambium cells are exposed when the outer skin or bark is peeled away from a dicot stem (monocots usually have no cambium).

Dermal tissuesThere are two types of dermal tissues epidermis and periderm.

Vascular tissuesVascular tissues make up the water- and food-conducting system of a plant. They consist of the xylem and phloem.

Every plant has a unique form and structure and is made up of several distinct organs. All of these influence a plant's overall health and appearance. Gardeners need to consider all parts of the plant and the effects of the environment on these structures, which include roots, stems, buds, leaves, flowers, seeds and seedlings, and fruits.

Healthy roots are vital to the well-being and the continued development of most cultivated plants. Roots' structure and growth habits have pronounced effects on the size and vigor of a plant, its ability to adapt to various soil types, and its responses to cultural practices and irrigation. In addition, many plants spread through buds that develop on vigorous roots, and portions of root can be used for vegetative reproduction or propagation. Examples are phlox and lilac (Syringa). Roots that store carbohydrates are often used as food for us and for animals. Carrots, beets, sweet potatoes and turnips are examples.

Types of rootsOne or more primary roots originate at the lower end of a seedling or cutting. From here, the root system develops, which is usually characteristic of the plant. Specific soil conditions can cause modifications in roots, however. For example, the taproot of a carrot growing in stony soil will be stunted and branched.

Figure 2Longitudinal section of root.

Root structureA root has no nodes and never directly bears leaves or flowers (Figure 2). Lengthwise, it has four main parts:

More on rootsThe quantity and distribution of plant roots are important because these two factors have a major influence on the root's ability to absorb moisture and nutrients. The depth and spread of the roots depend on the plant's inherent growth characteristics and on the texture and structure of the soil. Roots will penetrate more deeply into a loose, well-drained soil, where there is adequate soil oxygen, than into a dense, poorly drained soil. A solidly compacted layer in the soil, sometimes called a hardpan, will restrict or terminate root growth.

During early development, a seedling plant absorbs nutrients and moisture from the soil within a few inches of the location of the seed from which the plant grew. As plants become well established, the root system develops laterally and usually extends to several times the spread of the branches. The greatest concentration of fibrous roots occurs in the top 12 inches of soil, but significant numbers of laterals may grow downward from these roots to provide an effective absorption system several feet or more underground.

Stems are generally the bulkiest and most obvious part of the plant. They support the leaves, buds, flowers and fruit. Water, nutrients, the products of photosynthesis, and gases pass up and down stems, to and from the roots. In certain plants, stems function as storage organs for food manufactured through photosynthesis. They may spread out and root, making new plants. Portions of stem, often called cuttings or slips, are used in vegetative reproduction or propagation. Examples are ivy, blackberry and willow (Salix). We commonly use stems as food examples include asparagus, kohlrabi, broccoli, cauliflower, rhubarb and potatoes.

Figure 3Cross section of woody plant stem. Figure 4Cross section of woody plant stem.

Structure of stemsBark is the external covering of the stem of woody plants. Internally, the stem's three major parts are the xylem, phloem and cambium (Figure 3). The xylem tissue consists of tube-like cells that conduct water and dissolved minerals and gases in the stem, while the phloem tissue conducts food products. Xylem forms the inner rings to become sapwood and heartwood of woody stems. The cambium is dicotyledonous meristematic tissue with cells that divide and enlarge to force the stem to expand outward. New xylem is formed on the inner side of the cambium and new phloem on the outside. The cambium is a thin, actively growing layer that is vulnerable to girdling by wires, weed trimmers and even a tree's own roots.

Herbaceous plants have stems that differ in internal arrangement when compared with woody plants. Although monocots and dicots both contain xylem and phloem, their vascular systems are arranged differently (Figure 4). In the stem of a monocot, the xylem and phloem are paired into bundles that are dispersed throughout the stem. In herbaceous dicots, those vascular bundles are arranged in a circle in the stem.

Figure 5Typical woody stem.

External features of stemsStems grow either above- or belowground. They may be long with large distances between leaves and buds, or they may be compressed with almost no distance between leaves and buds. The location on the stem where a leaf or bud occurs is called a node (Figure 5). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between stems and roots, but one sure way is to look for nodes. Stems have nodes; roots do not.

The internodes are the regions between nodes. The length of an internode depends on many factors. One of these is genetic oaks usually have shorter internodes than sycamores. Environment is also a great influence. For example, decreasing fertility will decrease internode length. Early-season growth, which is often the most vigorous, usually results in the greatest internode length. Too little light will cause stems to elongate, resulting in long, spindly growth. Paradoxically, plants that are growing vigorously tend to have longer internodes than weak plants. Internode length will also be affected by competition from surrounding stems or fruits. If the plant's energy (available water and food) is divided between three or four stems, or if fruits (seeds) are also developing on the stem, less energy is available for any one shoot, and internode length is shortened.

Look at the varying internode lengths in a full season's growth of a deciduous tree, such as an oak or an apple. An interesting exercise for a gardener is to look at a stem and then try to identify the conditions that may have affected growth.

Types of stemsTypical stems are the trunks and branches of shrubs and trees, and the stalks of nonwoody plants. Modified stems can be found both aboveground and belowground.

Parts of aboveground modified stems.

Parts of belowground modified stems.

A bud is an undeveloped shoot from which leaves or flower parts grow. The buds of deciduous trees and shrubs typically are protected by leathery bud scales or, in the case of some evergreens, a resinous covering. Some buds are termed "naked" because they have no covering. Herbaceous plants have naked buds in which the outer leaves are green and somewhat succulent.

Buds may require exposure to a certain number of days below a critical temperature before they will resume growth in the spring. This time period varies for different plants. During rest, dormant buds can withstand low temperatures, but after the rest period, buds become more susceptible to weather conditions and can be damaged easily by cold temperatures or frost.

A leaf bud is composed of a short stem with embryonic leaves and develops into leafy shoots. Leaf buds are often less plump than flower buds. Flower buds are made up of a short stem with embryonic flower parts.

Buds are classified by their location on the stem. Terminal or apical buds are located at the apex or tip of the stem. Lateral or axillary buds are found on the sides of the stem, usually in the leaf axil, the point of leaf attachment to the stem. Adventitious buds arise at other sites, including the internode of the stem, at the edge of a leaf blade, from callus tissue at the cut end of a stem or root, or laterally from the roots of plants.

The principal function of leaves is to absorb sunlight for the manufacture of plant sugars. This process is called photosynthesis. The typical leaf has a flattened surface to present a large area that efficiently absorbs light energy. In most cases, the leaf is supported by a stemlike appendage called a petiole. The base of the petiole is attached to the stem at the node. The angle formed between the petiole and the stem is called the leaf axil. A bud or cluster of buds is usually located in the axil.

Figure 6Cross section of dicot leaf.

Structure of leavesThe leaf blade is composed of several layers (Figure 6). On the top and bottom is a layer of small, tough epidermal cells. The primary function of the epidermis is to protect leaf tissues. The arrangement of the cells in the epidermis determines the texture of the leaf surface. Hairs that are present on some leaves are extensions of epidermal cells.

The thickness of the cuticle (the layer of cutin produced by epidermal cells) is a direct response to sunlight. The stronger the light, the thicker the cuticle. For this reason, plants grown in the shade should be moved into full sunlight gradually over a period of a few weeks to allow the cutin layer to build and to protect the leaves from rapid water loss and sunscald.

Cutin repels water and can shed pesticides if spreader/sticker agents or soaps are not used. This is the reason many pesticide manufacturers include some sort of spray additive to adhere to or penetrate the cutin layer.

On the surface of leaves are the stomata. Some plants have stomata on both surfaces; others have them only on the lower surface. Formed from epidermal guard cells that are capable of opening and closing, the stomata regulate the passage of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of the leaf. The opening and closing of guard cells is determined by the environment. Conditions that cause large water losses from plants (high temperature, low humidity) stimulate closing, while mild weather conditions leave guard cells open. Guard cells close in the absence of light.

The middle layer of a leaf is known as the mesophyll. This is the location of the chloroplasts that contain the green pigment chlorophyll. Photosynthesis takes place here. In monocot plant leaves, the mesophyll consists of cells and air spaces. In dicot leaves, it is divided into a dense upper layer called the palisade and a lower, spongy layer of cells with air spaces.

Leaf types

Figure 7ASimple leaf type.

Figure 7BCompound leaf type.

Figure 8Leaf venation.

Leaf venation Venation describes the patterns in which the veins are distributed in the blade (Figure 8).

Figure 9Leaf shapes, simple, left, compound, above right, and conifers, below right.

Leaf shapesThe shape of the leaf blade and the type of leaf margin are important characteristics that help identify plants (Figure 9). Leaf blades vary a great deal. They may be simple (apple, oak) or compound (divided into several smaller leaflike segments, as in honeylocust). The smaller segments are called leaflets and are attached to a stalk (rachis) with a petiolule. Leaflets can also be arranged palmately (horse chestnut) or pinnately (ash). Pinnately compound leaves are said to be odd pinnate (ash) when ending in one leaflet and even pinnate when ending in two leaflets (locust). This terminology is important in identifying plants by their leaves.

Leaf modificationsLeaves have adapted to survive a wide range of environmental conditions. For instance, leaves exposed to strong sunlight are often smaller and have thicker cuticles than leaves of the same plant growing in shade. The reduced surface area and thicker cuticle reduces water loss. Leaves that develop in shade have a larger surface area to absorb light.

Chloroplasts respond to light by exposing as much pigment as possible in low light situations and by exposing less pigment in bright conditions. We see the results: dark green foliage on shade-grown plants and paler green foliage when the same plant grows in a sunnier location. Examples of this include hosta, Norfolk Island pine and weeping fig.

Leaves on plants that grow in dry environments will often be thick or narrow with few intercellular (air) spaces in the mesophyll, while guard cells are sunken below the level of the regular epidermis to minimize water loss. In some desert plants, such as cacti, the foliage leaves may be modified into thorns and photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast-containing cells in the stem.

Plants that grow underwater have just a few widely spaced mesophyll cells and big intercellular spaces for holding gases that are harder to acquire underwater.

Many conifers have leaves adapted for windy or low-moisture conditions. Needlelike leaves on pines have little wind resistance, and the flattened or scalelike leaves of junipers are waxy and well protected from the hot sun.

Distinct leaf modifications that occur on plants

Figure 10Leaf arrangements.

Leaf arrangement and attachmentLeaves at the nodes may grow in pairs opposite one another (maple) or alternate (birch) from side to side along the stem (Figure 10).

They also may be whorled, with three or more leaves arising from a node, such as hydrangea. Subopposite leaves are slightly offset from one another; these are relatively rare. An example is the katsura tree, Cercidiphyllum japonicum.

Although there are many different kinds of flowers, they are similar in their organization. The function of flowers is sexual reproduction. Thus, flowers often form the showiest part of the plant. Their color and fragrance attract pollinators such as insects or birds to assure the continuance of the species. Flowers that are neither showy nor scented rely on other methods for pollination wind, for example. Yet all have the same basic structures.

Figure 11Parts of a typical flower.

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Plants and Their Environment | MU Extension

Jasmin Merdan/Getty Images For the most up-to-date news and information about the coronavirus pandemic, visit the WHO and CDC websites.

In a flurry of booster demand and unanswered questions in the US, an advisory committee to the US Food and Drug Administration is meeting today and tomorrow to discuss whether to authorize booster doses of Moderna and Johnson & Johnson's COVID-19 vaccines, which may also include discussion on whether to recommend people get a different COVID-19 vaccine for boosters or future doses. In other words, it's possible health officials may recommend some people start "mixing and matching" coronavirus shots.

In September, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended Pfizer COVID-19 boosters for all people who originally got vaccinated with the Pfizer vaccine and are aged 65 and older, individuals living in long-term care facilities and adults ages 50 to 64 who have underlying medical conditions. Younger adults ages 18 to 49 who have underlying medical conditions, such as diabetes and obesity, and adults whose jobs put them at higher risk of COVID-19 may also choose to get a booster. Of this large group, you're only eligible for a booster if you already received two Pfizer shots.

Understandably, this left people who have similar health conditions or those who are also at risk of COVID-19 infection because of their work -- but happened to get Moderna or Johnson & Johnson -- largely in the dark. If Pfizer is the only authorized booster so far, what does this mean for people who didn't originally get Pfizer?

Preliminary data from a study that looked at booster doses in people who originally received either Pfizer, Moderna or Johnson & Johnson was published online yesterday, but it needs to be reviewed, along with other data, before health officials make a recommendation for mixing vaccine series.

"Of course, as with all things we do, they must be submitted to the FDA for their regulatory approval," chief medical adviser Dr. Anthony Fauci said about booster data during a White House COVID-19 briefing in September. "You don't want to get ahead of the FDA, but at least that's where the data are right now."

Mixing COVID-19 vaccines is being done in other countries, and it's been done in the US with other vaccines (it's also being done unofficially in medical offices as some people seek out COVID-19 boosters for themselves.) But before they make an official recommendation or give any sort of green light, health officials in the US need to determine whether the benefits of mixing different vaccine types outweigh the potential risks if any, as well as consider the differences between the vaccines.

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For starters, while all three vaccines have the same effect (though they vary slightly in their efficacy), the way they function is a little different. Pfizer and Moderna are mRNA vaccines, which teach our cells to make a specific protein and build immunity against a virus. Johnson & Johnson is a viral vector vaccine, which uses a harmless virus to activate an immune response and tell our bodies what to fight in future infections. Both vaccine types prepare our immune systems for COVID-19 infection, and none of the coronavirus vaccines infects us with the actual coronavirus.

Whether you're eligible for a booster now, want to be prepared for a potential third shot in the future, or are making plans to get your first COVID-19 shot, here's what we know now about mixing different vaccine brands.

The newest CDC recommendation for some adults who received Pfizer only applies to those who got Pfizer for their initial coronavirus vaccine series. So if you qualify, you'll get another shot of Pfizer at least six months after your second dose.

If you're "moderately or severely immunocompromised," according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and received Pfizer or Moderna as your COVID-19 vaccine, it's recommended that you receive another dose at least four weeks after your second shot. Examples of people who qualify right now include organ transplant patients, people who are being treated for tumors or cancer in the blood, people who've received a stem cell transplant, folks with untreated or advanced HIV infection and people with other conditions or who are taking medications that suppress their immune system. If you're unsure whether you need one, talk with your doctor.

If you got Pfizer for your initial vaccine, you should get a third dose of Pfizer, and the same goes for Moderna. However, the CDC says that if you don't know what brand you received or if that brand isn't available to you, you could get the other mRNA vaccine. (Johnson & Johnson recipients who are immunocompromised aren't included in this recommendation by the CDC.)

So right now, the only CDC-endorsed "mix and match" approach is for immunocompromised people who received Moderna or Pfizer and can't receive the same mRNA vaccine for whatever reason (you lost your vaccine card and can't remember, the first one isn't available in your area, etc.) This does not apply to people who are eligible for Pfizer's booster for whatever reason.

Generally, the CDC says that because data on people who've received two different vaccines (called a "mixed series") is limited, it's preferable to get your second dose of the same vaccine, even if it means waiting longer than the recommended time. But if there was a mix-up at the clinic oryou accidentally received Pfizer for the second dose when your first shot was Moderna, you don't need a third dose of either vaccine and you're still considered fully vaccinated two weeks after your second dose of an mRNA vaccine, according to the CDC.

If you got Pfizer or Moderna for the first shot, then Johnson & Johnson for the second dose because you have a contraindication (an allergic reaction to your first dose or another medical reason you shouldn't get another dose of your first shot), you're considered fully vaccinated two weeks after your Johnson & Johnson shot, per the CDC.

The fact that the current guidance allows people currently eligible for an extra COVID-19 shot to get a dose of Pfizer if Moderna isn't available, and vice versa, is likely because scientists determined that the benefits of a third dose of coronavirus vaccine (protection against severe disease) for some people outweigh the unknown risks that may come from receiving another kind of shot.

But before scientists and public health officials can go on record recommending a mixed-series vaccine for the general population, they need to determine that it's a safe practice and that the benefits of it outweigh potential risks.

"There are theoretical advantages to receiving different vaccine types, in that different parts of the immune system can be impacted for protection," says Dr. Margaret Day, physician and vaccine co-chair at University of Missouri Health Care. "But medical research is ongoing about antibody responses and T cell responses as well as safety and efficacy in trials."

Information from outside the US shows promising efficacy, though, and other countries have been allowing people to receive two different vaccines, including Germany, Canada, Sweden, France, Spain and Italy, per The New York Times. (In some cases, mixing vaccine types comes down to what's available.) In a study published in the journal Nature, researchers in Spain found that people who received one dose of AstraZeneca (a similar vaccine to Johnson & Johnson) and then received a dose of Pfizer seem to produce a higher antibody response than people who receive two doses of AstraZeneca. It isn't clear whether this group had a higher immune response than people who received two doses of Pfizer.

In the US, the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases announced a study in June that tested mixing different COVID-19 vaccines. Data from that mix-and-match trial with Moderna as the booster vaccine has been shared with the CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices and the Food and Drug Administration, a spokesperson with the NIAID said. The FDA committee is expected to discuss that data on Friday.

When or if public health officials determine that a mixed vaccine regimen or "heterologous priming" is safe and effective, that may open doors for people if they become eligible for additional doses. It may also prompt public health officials to make certain vaccine recommendations for specific groups. In the United Kingdom, for example, the National Health Service says that for people under age 40 who don't have a health condition, it's "preferable for you to have the Pfizer/BioNTech or Moderna vaccine instead of Oxford/AstraZeneca," because of AstraZeneca's link to a very rare but serious blood-clotting disorder in younger people (who have a lower risk of dying from COVID-19 without the influence of another health condition). Germany issued a similar recommendation about mixing AstraZeneca with an mRNA vaccine.

Johnson & Johnson's shot in the US has also been linked to the same rare-but-serious blood-clotting disorder, and the CDC says, "Women younger than 50 years old especially should be aware of the rare but increased risk of this adverse event, and they should know about other available COVID-19 vaccine options for which this risk has not been seen." Should a booster or additional dose ever be needed for this group, and available data shows that a mixed series is safe, it might be safe to assume that the CDC could suggest that people in this group get a different vaccine the second time around.

In San Francisco, some Johnson & Johnson recipients have gone ahead and received an mRNA shot after the city made an "accommodation" for those asking for one, though it hasn't changed health policy in San Francisco.

The vaccine for Ebola, made by Johnson & Johnson, uses a mixed-dose approach. According to the EU Research and Innovation Magazine, the two-part vaccine is made up of two slightly different technologies and was developed this way because of the immune response it could produce.

Dr. Margaret Day says that while sometimes different vaccine brands are used, "a major difference is having years' worth of data available for review for those."

While research for everything else is underway, Day says the best thing you can do is to complete the COVID-19 vaccine series as currently reviewed.

"Ultimately, the absolutely most important action people can take today to protect themselves and their communities against COVID-19 is getting their initial COVID-19 vaccine series," Day says. "We will be faced with questions about the best strategies for initial series vaccination and additional vaccinations and booster doses, and those answers will become available in time."

In the US, 78.5% of adults have received at least one COVID-19 shot, according to CDC data. According to Our World in Data, 48% of the world's population has received at least one dose of a coronavirus vaccine. Only 2.5% of people in lower-income countries have received a COVID-19 vaccine.

The information contained in this article is for educational and informational purposes only and is not intended as health or medical advice. Always consult a physician or other qualified health provider regarding any questions you may have about a medical condition or health objectives.

More here:
Can you mix COVID vaccines? What that could mean for Moderna and J&J boosters - CNET

What are critical minerals, where do we find them, and why are they considered critical? Leading critical-minerals experts from across the country will answer these questions and more during a virtual workshop hosted by Missouri S&T Aug. 2-3. The workshop will provide insight and answers to issues surrounding materials such as cobalt for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles, germanium for transistors, tellurium for solar cells and rare earth elements for magnets and electronics.

The term critical minerals describes commodities whose unreliable supply threatens our nations economy and defense, says workshop organizer Dr. Marek Locmelis, assistant professor of geology and geophysics at Missouri S&T. The critical-minerals discussion cuts across a variety of disciplines, from mining and geosciences to public policy to environmental considerations. Important concerns are sustainability, ethical and responsible sourcing, and research for compounds that could replace critical minerals.

Missouri S&T will host eight keynote presenters:

Keynote presentations will address several topics: supply chains, global politics, domestic sourcing and production, recycling, and reprocessing. The workshop will also address the illicit critical-mineral economy, a topic of increasing urgency as critical minerals are sometimes unethically mined for example, using child labor and human trafficking and illegally marketed, similar to issues associated with conflict diamonds.

The workshop will also feature breakout sessions where participants will discuss research needs in areas related to the keynote presentations. The discussions can be used to inform Congress and develop federal funding initiatives.

The workshop is funded through a grant from the National Science Foundation and is the first in a planned series of national conversations about critical minerals. The workshops will bring together representatives from higher education, industry and government to help spur action and disseminate research on critical minerals.

We are grateful for the NSFs support for this crucial topic, says Locmelis. We will continue the discussions during an in-person workshop on the Missouri S&T campus in mid-2022. Because the critical-mineral challenge will stay with us for decades, we look forward to developing the workshop into a regular series of meetings in the future.

In addition to Locmelis, workshop organizers include Dr. Michael Moats, professor and interim chair of materials science and engineering; Dr. Kwame Awuah-Offei, interim director of mining and explosives engineering; Dr. Lana Alagha, associate professor of mining engineering; Dr. Mark Fitch, assistant chair and associate professor of civil, environmental and architectural engineering; Dr. Alanna Krolikowski, assistant professor of history and political science; and Dr. Angela Lueking, associate dean for research in the College of Engineering and Computing at Missouri S&T.

The workshop is open to anyone who is interested in critical minerals. For more information or to register, visit criticalminerals.mst.edu/.

About Missouri University of Science and Technology

Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T) is a STEM-focused research university of over 7,600 students and part of the four-campus University of Missouri System. Located in Rolla, Missouri, Missouri S&T offers 101 different degree programs in 40 areas of study and is ranked by CollegeFactual as the best public university to study engineering. For more information about Missouri S&T, visit http://www.mst.edu.

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Missouri S&T hosts first in series of national critical minerals workshops - Missouri S&T News and Research

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In 2013, the worlds first burger was cooked in butter from a laboratory and eaten at a brilliant press conference. The burger cost 215,000 (at the time $ 330,000) and despite all the media razzmatazz, the tasters were polite but not overly impressed. Close to meat, but not so juicy, said a food critic.

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Still, this one burger, which Google co-founder, Sergey Brin paid for, was the earliest use of a technique called cell culture to make edible meat products from scratch no dead animals are required. Cellular agriculture, the products of which are known as cultivated or laboratory-grown meat, builds muscle tissue from a handful of cells taken from an animal. These cells are then grown in a bioreactor on a scaffold and fed with a special nutrient solution.

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Just over five years later, startups around the world are trying to produce laboratory-grown meat that tastes as good as the traditional way and costs about as much.

You are already catching up: vegetable-based meat, which consists of a mixture of non-animal products that mimic the taste and consistency of real meat, is already on the market. The biggest name in this field: Impossible Foods, whose faux meat is sold in more than 5,000 restaurants and fast food chains in the USA and Asia and is expected to be available in supermarkets later this year. Impossibles team of over 100 researchers uses techniques such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify the volatile molecules released during the cooking of meat.

The key to their special formula is the oxygen-carrying molecule heme, which contains iron, which gives meat its color and metallic taste. Instead of using meat, Impossible uses genetically modified yeasts to make a version of heme that is found in the roots of certain plants.

Impossible has some competitors, especially Beyond Meat, that use pea protein (among other things) to replicate minced meat. The product is sold in supermarket chains such as Tesco in the UK and Whole Foods in the USA in addition to real meat and chicken. Both Impossible and Beyond released new, improved versions of their burgers in mid-January.

In contrast, none of the meat startups bred in the laboratory have yet announced a launch date for their first commercial product. But if that happens some claim it will be at the end of this year the laboratorys approach could turn the traditional meat industry upside down.

I suspect that cultured meat proteins can do things that vegetable proteins cannot in terms of taste, nutrition, and performance, says Isha Datar, director of New Harvest, an organization that funds research into cellular Agriculture helps. Datar, cell biologist and member of the MIT Media Lab, believes that meat cultures are more likely to be more nutritionally functional and functional than real meat. The idea is that a die-hard carnivore (like me) may not feel so upset about giving up the real thing.

Dingding Hu

You might ask, why would anyone want that? The answer is that our meat consumption habits are literally unsustainable.

Livestock breeding already contributes around 15% to global greenhouse gas emissions. (You may have heard that cows would be the third largest emitter in the world as a country.) A quarter of the worlds ice-free land is used for grazing cows and a third of the acreage is used for growing food. A growing population will make things worse. It is estimated that a population of 10 billion people is expected to eat 70% more meat by 2050. The greenhouse gases from food production will even increase by 92%.

In January, a commission of 37 scientists at The Lancet reported that the harmful effects of meat are not only a global risk to people and the planet, but also to our health. In October 2018, a study in Nature found that we would need to change our diet significantly in order not to irreparably destroy our planets natural resources.

Without changes towards a more plant-based diet, says Marco Springmann, a researcher for ecological sustainability at Oxford University and main author of the nature paper, there is little chance of avoiding dangerous climate changes.

The good news is that more and more people are rethinking what they eat. A recent Nielsen report found that sales of plant-based foods to replace animal products increased by 20% in 2018 compared to the previous year. Veganism, which not only avoids meat, but also products that come from greenhouse gas-emitting dairy cattle, is now considered to be relatively widespread.

That doesnt necessarily mean more vegans. A recent Gallup survey found that the number of people in the United States who claim to be vegan has changed little since 2012, at only about 3%. Regardless, the Americans eat less meat, even if they dont cut it out entirely.

Ulma Valeti (center), CEO of Memphis Meats, and Nicholas Genovese (right), chief science officer, watch a chef prepare one of their creations.

Memphis meat

Investors are betting large sums that this dynamic will continue. Startups like MosaMeat (co-founded by Mark Post, the scientist behind the 215,000 burger), Memphis Meats, Supermeat, Just and Finless Foods have all raised a lot of venture capital. The first step now is to bring a tasty product onto the market at an acceptable cost.

Eric Schulze, Vice President of Product and Regulation at Memphis Meats, sees his product as a complement to the meat industry. With our rich cultural background, we offer a new innovation that fits into our growing list of sustainable food traditions, he says. We see ourselves as a and not or solution to help feed a growing world.

The traditional meat industry does not see it that way. The National Cattlemens Beef Association in the United States calls these new approaches repellent as wrong meat. In August 2018, Missouri passed a law prohibiting the labeling of such alternative products as meat. Only food that comes from the harvest of cattle or poultry is allowed to have the word meat on the label in any form. Violation of this law can result in a fine or even a one-year prison sentence.

The alternative meat industry is fighting back. The Good Food Institute, which advocates regulations that favor plant-based and laboratory-grown meat, has partnered with Tofurky (manufacturer of a tofu-based meat substitute since the 1980s), the American Civil Liberties Union, and the Animal Legal Defense Fund repeal the law. Jessica Almy, the director of the institute, says that existing law is nonsensical and an insult to the principle of free speech. The idea behind the law is to make vegetable meat less attractive and to put farm meat at a disadvantage when it comes to the market, she says.

Almy is confident that her case will be successful and expects an injunction to come soon. But the Battle of Missouri is just the beginning of a battle that could take years. In February 2018, the U.S. Cattlemens Association issued a petition calling on the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to pass a similar federal law.

We have to change our diet so as not to destroy the planet.

Traditional meat industry groups have also been very vocal about how to regulate meat and meat on a plant basis. Last summer, a group of the largest agricultural organizations in the United States (nicknamed The Barnyard) wrote to President Trump asking for the certainty that the USDA will oversee farmed meat to ensure level playing field (the USDA needs tougher) and be more stringent) than the Food and Drug Administration.)

Finally, in November 2018, the USDA and FDA issued a joint statement announcing that the two regulators would share responsibility for monitoring laboratory-grown meat.

Some farmed startups claim that this regulatory confusion is the only thing holding them back. One company, Just, plans to launch a ground chicken this year and has partnered with a Japanese cattle breeding company to produce a Wagyu beef product from cells in the laboratory. Managing Director is Josh Tetrick, who previously founded the controversial startup Hampton Creek, Justs ancestor. (The FDA had previously banned the company from calling the product mayonnaise because it contained no eggs.) Talk to Tetrick, a bullish, confident young man, and youll get a feel for the drive and excitement behind the alternative meat market , The only (limit) for the start, he says, is regulatory.

Dingding Hu

That is optimistic to say the least. The laboratory meat movement is still facing major technical hurdles. One of them is that the so-called fetal bovine serum is required for the production of the product. FBS is harvested from fetuses taken from pregnant cows during slaughter. This is an obvious problem for an allegedly cruelty-free product. FBS is also very expensive. It is used in the biopharmaceutical industry and in basic cellular research, but only in small quantities. However, cultivated meat requires large amounts. All laboratory meat start-ups have to use less of it or eliminate it entirely to make their products cheap enough. Last year, Finless Foods (aiming to make a fish-free version of bluefin tuna) reported that the amount of FBS needed to grow its cells had halved. And Schulze says the Memphis Meats team is working on completely cutting it out.

However, according to Datar, there are other issues with New Harvest. She says we still dont understand the basic processes well enough. While we have a fairly deep understanding of animals used in medical research, such as laboratory mice, our knowledge of farm animals is rather poor at the cellular level. I see a lot of excitement and VCs invest, but not much in scientific, material advances, she says. It will be difficult to expand the technology if we learn how these complex biological systems react and grow.

Meat from laboratory cultivation has another more tangible problem. Growing muscle cells from the bottom up produce pure meat tissue, but the result lacks an essential part of every burger or steak: fat. Fat gives meat its taste and moisture, and its texture is difficult to reproduce. Vegetable meat already partially circumvents the problem by using the shear cell technology to pull the vegetable protein mixture together in layers to form a meat-like fiber texture. However, if you want to prepare a meat-free steak from scratch, you still need to do some work. Cultivated meat needs a way to grow fat cells and somehow mix them with the muscle cells to make the end result tasty. This has proven difficult so far, which is the main reason why the first burger was so dry.

The scientists at the Dutch meat startup Meatable may have found a way. The team has focused on medical stem cell research to find a way to isolate pluripotent stem cells in cows by removing them from the blood in umbilical cords of newborn calves. Pluripotent cells that form early in the development of an embryo can develop into any type of cell in the body. This means that they can also be made to produce fat, muscle, or even liver cells in meat from the laboratory.

I think there will be queues outside the store that are longer than the next iPhone.

Meatables work could mean that the cells can be processed into a steak-like product, the fat and muscle content of which depends on the customers wishes: for example, the characteristic marbling of a rib-eye steak. We can add more fat or make it slimmer we can do whatever we want. We have new control over how we feed the cells, said Meatables CTO, Daan Luining, who is also the research director of the nonprofit Cellular Agriculture Society. Pluripotent cells are like hardware. The software you run turns it into the desired cell. Its already in the cell you just have to trigger it.

The work of the researchers is also interesting because they have found a way to work around the FBS problem: the pluripotent cells do not need serum to grow. Luining is clearly proud of this. It was a very elegant solution to bypass this other cell type, he says.

He admits that Meatable is still years from the launch of a commercial product, but is confident that it will open up prospects. I think there will be queues outside the store that are longer than the next iPhone, he says.

It looks like laboratory meat isnt quite as virtuous as you think. While greenhouse gas emissions are lower than that of the greatest villain, beef, it is more environmentally harmful than chicken or vegetable alternatives due to the energy needs currently required for its production. A World Economic Forum white paper on the impact of alternative meat found that laboratory-grown meat as it is now produced only produces about 7% less greenhouse gas emissions than beef. Other substitutes such as tofu or plants led to a reduction of up to 25%. We will have to see whether companies can actually offer low-emission products at reasonable costs, said Marco Springmann, co-author of the newspaper in Oxford.

It is also unclear how much better laboratory meat would be for you than the original. One reason why meat has been linked to an increased risk of cancer is because it contains heme, which can also be present in cultivated meat.

And do people even want to eat it? Datar believes that. The little research on this topic supports this. A 2017 study published in PLoS One magazine found that most U.S. consumers were willing to try laboratory meat and that about a third were likely or definitely willing to eat it regularly.

It is unrealistic to expect the whole world to go vegan. However, a October 2018 report in Nature suggested that if everyone switched to the flexible lifestyle (mainly vegetarian food, but with a little poultry and fish and no more than one serving of red meat a week), we could halve greenhouse gas emissions from food production and also reduce other harmful effects of the meat industry, such as the excessive use of fertilizers and the waste of fresh water and land. (According to a study in The Lancet in October, premature mortality could be reduced by about 20% as fewer people die from diseases such as coronary artery disease, stroke, and cancer.)

impossible food

Some of the biggest players in the traditional meat industry recognize this and subtly call themselves protein producers rather than meat companies. Like big tobacco companies that buy vape startups, the meat giants are buying shares in this new industry. In 2016, Tyson Foods, the worlds second largest meat processor, launched a venture capital fund to support alternative meat producers. It is also an investor in Beyond Meat. The third largest company, Cargill, invested in meat culture startup Memphis Meats in 2017, and Tyson followed in 2018. Many other large food manufacturers do the same. For example, in December 2018, Unilever bought a Dutch company called Vegetarian Butcher, which produces a variety of non-meat products, including vegetable-based meat substitutes.

A meat company doesnt do what it does because it worsens the environment and doesnt like animals, says Tetrick, Justs general manager. You do it because you think its the most efficient way. But if you do give them another way to make the company more efficient, they will.

At least some in the meat industry agree. In a profile for Bloomberg last year, Tom Hayes, then CEO of Tyson, made it clear where he saw the possible future of the company. If we can grow the meat without the animal, why not?

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The race for a steak grown in the laboratory - Techno EA

The warnings are already up in the popular press: Conversations during the Thanksgiving feast can be hazardous if they veer into political territory. But political talk can take place in theory: A data research company has now determined what topics are safe to talk about on the holiday.

With some qualitative analysis and a little common sense, weve created a cheat sheet that will help you blaze a path through Thanksgiving dinner that steers clear of treacherous political pitfalls and dangerous inter-uncle conflicts, reports Ranker.com, a Los Angeles-based media company which uses crowdsourcing to rank public opinion on multiple topics, typically at the rate of 15 million votes a month.

They have determined what political topics are the least and the most likely to set off a Thanksgiving dinner squabble. Their judgment is based on 300,000 votes from 40,000 respondents.

The topics to avoid this year: Abortion, immigration, terrorism and gender equality. The topics which are safe for dinnertime discussion: Ineffective government, health care reform and education.

If there are millennials present, they will be triggered, the organization says, by talk of abortion, police brutality and pollution. Generation X members will be set off by such topics as homelessness, affordable housing and campaign finance reform. Baby boomers will go to battle over terrorism, immigration and the moral decline of the nation.

The organization also has warnings for dinner hosts in certain states. If they live in Florida, their guests will be particularly sensitive about discussions of vaccines. In Indiana, its gender equality while Georgia diners are prone to fight over police brutality. Beware of talking about gun control at dinner tables in both California and Missouri; Texans get feisty over moral decline. New Yorkers get upset over transgender issues.

We examined each issue on a case-by-case basis to find the topics that are most likely to cause disagreement, as well as the ones on which people tend to either agree or not care about, Ranker.com explains.

A VERY SPECIALIZED MEAL

While most of us are enjoying turkey and pumpkin pie on Thanksgiving, the staff at one laboratory at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles will be busy serving a meal to stem cells.

Stem cells do not observe national holidays, says Loren Ornelas-Menendez, manager of the very specialized lab that converts samples of adult skin and blood cells into stem cells which the human body uses to make our cells in the first place.

These special cells help medical scientists learn how diseases develop and how they might be cured. The lab is tending millions of them. Oh, but they have needs.

Stem cells are living creatures that must be hand-fed a special formula each day, monitored for defects and maintained at just the right temperature. And that means the cell lab is staffed every day, 52 weeks a year, the lab notes in a public advisory.

Many people have dogs. We have stem cells, says Ms. Ornelas-Menendez.

Derived from hundreds of healthy donors and patients, the resident induced pluripotent stem cells or iSPCs are keys to potential treatments for diabetes, breast cancer, Alzheimers disease, blindness, Parkinsons disease and Crohns disease, among other conditions. Ten lab technicians monitor the cells through microscopes each day and cull out any cells which have gone awry for one reason or another.

But what do they eat even on Thanksgiving?

While the cells get sorted, a special feeding formula is defrosting in a dozen bottles spread around a lab bench. The formula includes sodium, glucose, vitamins and proteins. Using pipettes, employees squeeze the liquid into food wells inside little compartments that contain the iPSCs. Afterward, they return the cells to their incubators, the lab advises.

Lab director Dhruv Sareen suggests that people consider offering a toast to the stem cells on Thanksgiving.

One day the cells they tend could lead to treatments for diseases that have plagued humankind for centuries, he says. And thats something to be truly thankful for.

THE GIPPERS FAVORITE

Back by popular demand, Inside the Beltway again shares this little known but historic recipe for President Reagans Favorite Macaroni and Cheese enjoyed by Ronald Reagan and his family on Thanksgiving and other holidays. What follows is a step-by-step shared by Mrs. Ronald Reagan, Washington, D.C., Wife of the President in a spiral-bound community cookbook published by the American Cancer Societys Northern Virginia division in 1983. The recipe serves six and is baked at 350 degrees F for 45 minutes.

The directions are from the cookbook reflecting the style, perhaps, of another era:

1/2 pound macaroni, 1 teaspoon butter, 1 egg, beaten; 1 teaspoon salt, 1 teaspoon dry mustard, 3 cups grated cheese, sharp; 1 cup milk.

Boil macaroni in water until tender and drain thoroughly. Stir in butter and egg. Mix mustard and salt with 1 tablespoon hot water and add to milk. Add cheese leaving enough to sprinkle on top. Pour into buttered casserole, add milk, sprinkle with cheese. Bake until custard is set and top is crusty.

Curious about what transpired at a Reagan Thanksgiving? A 1985 Los Angeles Times account noted this:

President and Mrs. Reagan gathered with their family for a quiet Thanksgiving dinner at their fogbound ranch in the Santa Ynez mountains, where the main topic of conversation was the weather. The Reagans did not seem to mind the enforced seclusion as they sat down to a traditional turkey dinner, prepared by Ann Allman, the Reagan familys longtime cook in California. It was an all-American menu that included cornbread dressing, cranberries, string beans, mashed potatoes, salad, pumpkin pie and monkey bread, a family favorite.

POLL DU JOUR

46% of Americans say long standing family tensions are the cause of family fights during holidays.

37% say general politics is the cause; 33% cite the 2020 presidential race.

24% say someones future plans cause the fights; 24% say money.

22% say the behavior of guests; 21% say drinking and alcohol.

18% say holiday cooking is the cause.

Source: A YouGov poll of 1,310 U.S. Adults conducted Sept. 25-26 and released Tuesday.

Have a happy Thanksgiving and thank you for reading Inside the Beltway.

Continue reading here:
Inside the Beltway: Abortion, immigration among forbidden topics at Thanksgiving table - Washington Times

2019-04: Come see Rebecca speak at the EBC/Stem Cell symposium on campus April 4th.

2019-03: Gabrielle's paper on tumor cell of origin in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex is now out in Life Science Alliance. Congratulations!

2019-02: Mistry's latest paper on V-SVZ-contacting brain tumors is now out in Scientific Reports.

2018-11: Rebecca's minireview (with colleagues) on Shh signaling is now out in J Neurosci.

2018-10: Congratulations Laura - Best Talk award at Pharmacology retreat!

2018-09: Justine wins Runner-Up for Best Presentation at the PDB annual retreat. Way to go!

2018-08: Amanda wins the Outstanding Oral Presentation Award for her summer research project and is featured in the VUMC Reporter. Way to go Amanda!

2018-06: Welcome to our VSSA student Amanda Blythe from U Missouri!

2018-05: Welcome new Pharmacology Ph.D. student Laura Winalski!

2018-04: Congratulations to postdoctoral fellow Todd Bartkowiak on your NCI K00 award!

2018-03: Congratulations to Nalin (comentored with the Irish lab) on your successful Ph.D. defense and residency match (Yale/Pathology)!

2018-01: The Ihrie and Ess labs are awarded pilot funding from the Vanderbilt Brain Institute TiPs program to develop mass based imaging in brain.

2017-10: Congratulations Justine and Bret on your accepted review article for the American Journal of Pathology!

2017-9: Dr. Ihrie and Dr. Irish receive the Ann Faulkenberry Memorial Award at the Southeastern Brain Tumor Foundation Race for Research.

2017-7: The lab is thrilled to have been selected for a research grant from the Southeastern Brain Tumor Foundation. See you at the Race for Research in September!

2017-5: Amanda wins the 2017 Founders Medal, and Divya is Salutatorian for the MLK Jr. Magnet Class of 2017.

2017-4: Current Protocols article now available online for dissociation of solid tumors for analysis using mass cytometry.

2017-3: Congratulations to Mistry on receiving the The Society of Neurological Surgeons/RUNN Resident Award to support your research!

2017-2: Nalin receives the AACR - ABTA Scholar-in-Training Award for her upcoming poster at AACR!

2017-1: Congratulations, Mistry - second accepted article in J Neuro Oncology!

2016-11: Great job, Nalin - oral presentation of collaborative work at the SNO 2016 Meeting

2016-9: Congratulations, Justine - first place poster at the annual PDB retreat!

2016-9: Congratulations to Mistry on his accepted article in J Neuro Oncology!

2016-7: Congratulations to Gabrielle on her recently published review article!

2016-7: Way to go, Divya - nice presentation at the School for Science and Math @ Vanderbilt poster session!

2016-6: Congratulations to Justine on passing her Phase I qualifying exam!

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The Ihrie Lab @ Vanderbilt | Neural stem cells, neural ...

Stem cells are unique because they drive the natural healing process throughout your life. As a result, amazing new medical treatments in Saint Louis, Missouri and many other cities in United States, are being developed to treat a range of diseases that currently are difficult or impossible to treat like Alzheimers Disease, Parkinsons Disease, Multiple Sclerosis and many others.

Adult mesenchymal stem cells, which have the ability to differentiate into adult specialized cells, have emerged as a candidate cell type with great potential for cell-based repair technologies in Saint Louis. Adult mesenchymal stem cells can be isolated from a variety of adult tissues, readily culture-expanded without losing their differentiation potential, and have been induced to differentiation in vitro and in vivo. Stem Cells Transplant Institute in Costa Rica is a pioneer in the field of providing health care for patients who may benefit from the deployment of adult mesenchymal stem cells. Apply hereand discover yourself the benefits of this revolutionary treatment.

As the medical field continues to advance in Saint Louis, new therapies have shown incredible potential for healing patients who suffer from acute or chronic pain, repetitive injuries, and even degenerative diseases. This is known as regenerative medicine, and it continues to replace medications and devices previously utilized to address health concerns.

The St. Louis Post-Dispatch is the major regional newspaper in St. Louis, serving Greater St. Louis. It is one of the largest newspapers in the Midwestern United States. It was published on August 5, 2016 that Carrie D. Wolinetz, NIHs associate director for science policy, announced the new policy proposal, saying it would enable NIH research community to move this promising area of science forward in a responsible manner. Under the proposed NIH policy, taxpayer funds would be allowed for experiments in which human cells are added to early-stage embryos of animals. Despite research and advances made, stem cells therapies are not legally approved in Saint Louis.

The Stem Cells Transplant Institute of Costa Rica specializes in the legal treatment of Parkinson, Osteoarthritis, Erectile Dysfunction, Myocardial infarction, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Diabetes, COPD, Knee Injury, Multiple Sclerosis, Lupus, Alzheimer, Cardiovascular Disease and Neuropathy. Contact us.

At Stem Cells transplant institute in Costa Rica, we provide our patients from Baker, Huntleigh, Country Life Acres, Ladue and Westwood with the newest techniques of stem cells applications. Get more information about legally approved stem cell therapiesnow.

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Saint Louis, Missouri - Stem Cells Transplant Institute

Missouri University ofScience and Technology

Former names

Academic staff

Administrative staff

U.S.

Sporting affiliations

Missouri S&T, or Missouri University of Science and Technology, is a public land grant and space grant university located in Rolla, Missouri, United States and a member institution of the University of Missouri System. Most of its 8,884 students (fall 2017)[4] study engineering, business, sciences, and mathematics. Known primarily for its engineering school, Missouri S&T offers degree programs in business and management systems, information science and technology, sciences, social sciences, humanities, and arts.

Missouri S&T was founded in 1870 as the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy (MSM), the first technological learning institution west of the Mississippi River. Early in its history, the School of Mines was focused primarily on mining and metallurgy. Rolla is located close to the Southeast Missouri Lead District which produces about 70% of the U.S. primary supply of lead as well as significant amounts of the nation's zinc.[11]

The school was founded under the auspices of the University of Missouri in Columbia in order to take advantage of the Morrill Land-Grant Acts to "teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life."[12] The act endowed Missouri a federal land grant of 30,000 acres for each of the state's two senators and nine representatives at the timeor 330,000 acres (133,546.26ha; 515.62sqmi). The endowment said that the land could not be sold for less than $1.25/acre and as such as was a minimum endowment of $412,500 for Missouri. There was an intense debate in the state over the location and number of schools before it was finally decided to have one school in Columbia and a branch in the mining area of southeast Missouri.[13]

Iron County, Missouri (Ironton, Missouri) and Phelps County, Missouri (Rolla) made bids for the school. Iron County's bid was valued at $112,545 and Phelps County's bid was $130,545 so the Phelps bid was officially approved on December 20, 1870.[13]

Classes began in November 23, 1871 in a new Rolla High School building that the city of Rolla had just built. The college had an enrollment of 28 and three graduates in 1874.[13] The college bought what is now called the "Rolla Building" for $25,000 in January 1875. That building is now used as the Mathematics and Statistics Department's library, chair's office, part of the main office, and other faculty offices following a $2 million renovation in 1995.[14]

By the 1920s, the school expanded into civil, electrical, mechanical and chemical engineering as well as chemistry, physics, mathematics and geology. The school became home to Missouri's first operational nuclear reactor in 1961.[citation needed]

Until 1964, the school was considered an offsite department of MU's School of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, reporting to the main campus in Columbia (although it began fielding sports teams in 1935 in the Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association). As such, its presiding officer was originally called a director (18711941), then a dean (19411964).[15] In 1963 the University of Missouri System was created with the additions of standalone campuses in Kansas City and St. Louis. A year later, MSM was upgraded to an autonomous standalone campus as the University of Missouri at Rolla and its presiding officer, like that of its sister schools, was granted the title of chancellor. The curriculum was expanded to include most of the science and engineering disciplines, as well as social sciences and liberal arts such as psychology and history. In 1968, the campus name was slightly altered to the University of MissouriRolla, thus conforming to the naming scheme of the other three campuses. Business and management programs were gradually added in the following years. On January 1, 2008 UMR became known as Missouri University of Science and Technology or Missouri S&T for short.[16]

In making the case for changing the name, then Chancellor John F. Carney III noted that Rolla in 2007 was "one of the few technological research universities in the nation. A technological research university (polytechnic university or institute of technology) may be defined as one in which a majority of students are enrolled in engineering, the sciences, business or mathematics; the graduate and research programs in those fields are robust; and exceptional academic programs in the liberal arts, humanities and social sciences complement and provide context to the technological strengths of the institution."

He noted that more than 70 percent of its enrollment was in engineering and more than 90 percent was in engineering, business, science and mathsignificantly higher than engineering schools such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He noted "The universitys name, however, does not reflect the distinctive nature of the campus. Often, UMR is viewed as a 'satellite' or 'branch' campus due to its name or as a 'feeder' campus for the University of Missouri-Columbia (commonly referred to as the University of Missouri). This branch-campus designation hinders many of our efforts to achieve national recognition and a strong reputation as a technological research university."[17][18]

He noted, "Of the 1.1 million seniors in the nation who took the ACT in 2006, only 551 non-Missouri seniors or .05 percent sent their scores to UMR." He also noted that the school's acronym of UMR got it confused with the University of Minnesota Rochester.[17]

Among the other names that were considered were Missouri University of Science and Engineering, Missouri Technological University, and Missouri Science and Engineering University.[18]

Missouri S&T Stonehenge, next to U.S. Highway 63 (Bishop Avenue)

Missouri S&T Stonehenge is a partial reconstruction of the original Stonehenge monument located on Salisbury Plain, in southern England. Missouri S&T's version of the ancient structure is located on the northwest corner of campus, and was dedicated on June 20, 1984 during the summer solstice. It features a 50-foot (15m) diameter ring of 30 stones around a horseshoe of five trilithons through which various sightings of sunrise and sunset can be made. About 160 tons of granite were used to construct the monument. The rock was cut by Missouri S&T's water jet cutter equipment, which used two waterjets cutting at a pressure of 15,000 pounds of force per square inch (103 MPa), slicing across the surface just like a conventional saw. The cutter moved at a speed of about 10 feet per minute (50mm/s) and cut between one-quarter and one-half inch (6 and 13mm) on each pass.[19]

After completion, Missouri S&T Stonehenge received an award from the National Society of Professional Engineers for being one of 1985's Ten Outstanding Engineering Achievements.[20]

The university developed a new way to make deep cuts in granite and worked with artist Edwina Sandys who used the method to create the Millennium Arch sculpture. The Arch is a single trilithon with the stylized silhouettes of a man and a woman cut from the two uprights. The figures cut from the uprights stand nearby as freestanding statues. The work, which is located on 10th Street facing Castleman Hall, was developed as a project of the High Pressure Waterjet Laboratory of the Rock Mechanics & Explosive Research Center at Missouri S&T.

There are two similar but smaller megaliths showing the same silhouette on each side of the sidewalk entrance to the Rock Mechanics & Explosive Research Center.

Leach Theatre is located in Castleman Hall and has a maximum seating capacity of 650 audience members. The theatre was opened in 1991 and plays host to approximately 100 events each academic year, including campus events and touring performances of groups such as the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra, the Russian National Ballet, Stomp, as well as off-Broadway shows such as Cats, Evita, and 42nd Street.[21]

The Curtis Laws Wilson Library is the main academic library on campus.[22] Wilson served as dean of the school from 1941 to 1963. The library's third floor is strictly a quiet study area with multiple rooms circling around the main area. The IT Helpdesk Walk-In Center is located on the first floor. The Miner Break Cafe (currently a Starbucks) is also located in the front right corner of the first floor.

The basement of the library is a quiet study area and is also home to several campus organizations, including:

The Puck is a small, circular stage in the center of the campus.[26] It is used for many student events, and is used extensively during St. Patrick's Day to host different events. It is a common gathering area, and tours given to new students often start at the landmark. Every year it is refaced to reflect the current "Best Ever" Saint Patrick's Day.

Officially opened in December 2010,[27] the Solar Village consists of four entries by Missouri S&T in the U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon.[28] Students, staff, faculty, and donors of Missouri S&T designed, constructed, and competed homes in each of the first four Decathlons including the Solar House in 2002,[29] the Prairie House in 2005,[30] the Solar House in 2007,[31] and the Show-Me House in 2009.[32] In 2012, the Solar Village was one of two highlights in a video short that won recognition from Second Nature and a Climate Leadership Award for the campus.[33] In 2014, the Solar Village was expanded to include a microgrid system and an electric car charging station,[34] and in 2016, Missouri S&T announced a second, EcoVillage, composed of Decathlon entries including the 2013 Chameleon House and the 2015 Nest Home.[35]

Recent school rankings include:

The school operates the 200kW Missouri S&T nuclear reactor on-campus for educational, training, and research purposes. It became the first nuclear reactor to have become operational in Missouri, and first achieved criticality in 1961.

The Student Design & Experiential Learning Center (SDELC)[49] was established in 2000 to better support the various multi-disciplinary student design teams. In 2004, the Center's mission expanded to provide experiential learning in academic courses, identify and support student service learning projects within the curriculum, and support ad-hoc student teams in specialty academic events involving multi-disciplinary student research.

By 2006, the SDELC had expanded to ten student design teams. The center's expanded mission involved better funding and offering support and resources to multi-disciplinary project teams that had a research base to their activities. The SDELC provided academic credit opportunities in the form of three, one-hour classes on design, leadership and communication. The center also offers a half-credit course on experiential design through the Residential College (RC) program which has a per-semester enrollment of over 100 students engaged in hands-on learning projects. The SDELC's student design teams, research teams and projects, and academic courses are the foundation of experiential learning at Missouri S&T.[49]

The Missouri S&T Solar House Team, designs and builds a house that is completely sustained by energy collected directly from the sun.[50] After the house is built on campus, it is disassembled and transported to Washington, D.C. for the Solar Decathlon, a month-long competition. The Solar House Team placed 11th overall in both 2007[51] and 2009 out of a total of 20 teams. The team is one of only three teams to compete in four decathlons, and one of two teams to compete in four consecutive decathlons. The 2011 Decathlon is the first that Missouri S&T did not participate, but the Solar House Team is back in the 2013 Decathlon in Irvine, California. The team took first place in the Energy Balance category at the 2005 competition. At the 2002 competition the team took first place in Refrigeration, second place in Energy Balance and third in Hot Water. In 2002 and 2005, the Missouri S&T team took 9th place out of 14 teams and 7th place out of 18 teams respectively. After competition, the homes are returned to the Solar Village on the S&T campus where they are rented as student housing.

Missouri S&T's chapter of Engineers Without Borders has four ongoing international projects in Guatemala, Honduras, and Bolivia. Over one hundred students are part of a team that works to develop sustainable solutions to engineering problems, such as lack of access to drinking water, in developing countries.[52]

The Advanced Aero-Vehicle Group constructs a remote controlled airplane for the annual Society of Automotive Engineers' Aero Design competition. The project is of interest mainly to aerospace engineering students, but students from other disciplines are also on the team. The Advanced Aero Vehicle Group also constructs a rocket every year. The rocket competes in the USLI competition hosted by NASA, in which the rocket must carry a payload one mile into the atmosphere. The AAVG group is also working on a research and development subgroup to compliment the existing plane and rocket groups.

The Missouri S&T Human Powered Vehicle Team demonstrates the engineering excellence of its members via a human-powered vehicle. The team promotes alternative energy technology while providing tomorrow's engineers with hands-on experience in applying classroom knowledge. Through the spirit of intercollegiate competition, this project hopes to foster leadership, teamwork and the continuous advancement of technologies for the betterment of humanity. The Missouri S&T Human Powered Vehicle Team competes annually at the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Human Powered Vehicle Challenge in both West and East Coast Competitions. The team has placed among the top two overall in 14 of 16 competitions, and holds the female sprint record of 41.8mph and male sprint record of 48.6mph.[53] In 2010, the team swept both the East and West Coast competitions and placed 1st in every event: Design, Male Drag Race, Female Drag Race and the Endurance Race, giving the team 1st Place Overall and National Speed Class Champions.

The Missouri S&T Formula SAE team constructs a small formula-style race car every year, suitable for mass production and sale to weekend autocrossers. The team competes in Brooklyn, Michigan against more than 100 other teams from universities around the world. The vehicle's cost, sales presentation, engineering design, acceleration, braking and racing performance all factor into its final score. The team has placed in the top ten in eight of the past twelve competitions, including first-, second- and fourth-place finishes.[54]

The Missouri S&T Concrete Canoe Team designs and constructs a concrete canoe and races it on a lake in regional and national competitions. The team has participated in concrete canoe competitions since the 1970s. The entire project, including fundraising and construction, is completed by the students. The team took third place in 2004.[55]

Missouri S&T's solar car team has met with much success. Every two years, the team constructs a single-passenger car, its top covered with solar cells, that runs exclusively on solar power. The car houses lithium ion batteries, which are much lighter than conventional lead-acid batteries. Every time the car is rebuilt, changes make it lighter and more efficient. The team regularly enters solar car races in the United States and occasionally enters international races. The car claimed first place in Sunrayce '99, first place in the 2000 Formula Sun Grand Prix, fourth place in the Australian World Solar Challenge in 2001, second place in the 2001 American Solar Challenge, and first place in the 2003 American Solar Challenge. In 2016, the team placed fourth in the American Solar Challenge after not participating for six years.

The Missouri S&T Satellite Project team began as an Aerospace engineering course (AE301 Spacecraft Design) when NASA held a contest for a 2-year development and build project (Nanosat program) that had to accomplish its goals in the harsh environment of space. After taking third place in Nanosat-4, the team continued perfecting its twin satellites for spaceflight and entry into the Nanosat-6 competition. During this cycle, the team was awarded "Best Outreach"[56] for its work at encouraging an interest by local school students in STEM-related fields. The team placed second during Nanosat-7, beating rival MIT.[57] With their legacy twin-satellite design and feedback from the AFRL sponsors, the team went on to win Nanosat-8 in 2015.[58]

The S&T Robotics Team participates annually in the Intelligent Ground Vehicle Competition (IGVC).[59] The team builds autonomous vehicles that traverse obstacle courses consisting of lane markers and obstacles. The current vehicles are designed to be omnidirectional so that they can easily drive around obstacles. Typically there are 3050 students on the team and two faculty advisers. The students handle all design and management aspects of the team but occasionally receive help from technicians to fabricate parts.

The Missouri University of Science and Technology Electromagnetic Compatibility Consortium is a broad partnership of digital electronics companies committed to funding electromagnetic compatibility research.

The S&T Mars Rover design team finished in first place at the 2017 international University Rover Challenge competition held June 13, 2017, in Hanksville, Utah. Missouri S&T's Mars Rover, named Gryphon, was designed and built by the students. The team developed custom circuitry for the rover, machined the aluminum and carbon-fiber support structure, developed durable wheels for terrain mobility, and 3-D printed gears used in the rover.[60]

Missouri S&T athletic teams are known as the "Miners" and the women's teams are referred to as the "Lady Miners". The name comes from the university's history as a mining school. Missouri S&T competes at the NCAA Division II level in thirteen sports and is a member of the Great Lakes Valley Conference (GLVC) for most sports, and the New South Intercollegiate Swimming Conference (NSISC) for men's swimming.[61]

Club sports associated with Missouri S&T include ultimate frisbee,[62] lacrosse, rugby union, roller hockey, trap and skeet,[63] tennis, baseball,[64] and water polo.[65]

Intramural sports have a very large following at the Missouri S&T. With over 60 men's teams and over 10 women's teams, sports are arranged into divisions. Thirty different sports are contested each year: golf, softball, swimming, ultimate, flag football, billiards, badminton, volleyball, racquetball, bowling, basketball, table tennis, tennis, track, weightlifting, and soccer.

The Missouri S&T event calendar includes current campus events.[66]

There are over 200 student organizations at Missouri S&T, including student government, professional societies, community service organizations, and religious and cultural groups.[67]

The student-run newspaper at Missouri S&T, The Missouri Miner, is published every Thursday during the school year and can be read online.[68] In February 2007, the paper threatened to sue the school because the university cut funding.[69] After a one-school-year break for many reasons including a funding cut, The Missouri Miner started republishing in the fall 2009 semester.

Production of the university's RollaMo yearbook is handled by undergraduate students.[70]

Two broadcast radio stations are associated with Missouri S&T: KMNR, previously known as KMSM, is a student-run, freeform radio station whose music playlist varies with the mood and inclination of the DJ, with some playing caller requests. Every year KMNR hosts two concerts Freakers Ball in the fall and MasqueRave (formerly Glitter Ball) in the spring. KMST, previously known as KUMR, is a member-supported public radio station, typically playing classical, bluegrass and jazz and National Public Radio programs. On July 16, 2007, KUMR officially changed its call letters to KMST, in advance of the change of name from "University of MissouriRolla" to the "Missouri University of Science and Technology". In 2017, KMST's broadcast operations were transferred to the University of MissouriSt. Louis.

Amateur radio station, WEEE, founded in 1931 and run by the Amateur Radio Club, was the first campus club at MSM and is one of the oldest student/college amateur stations in the US.[71]

Honor societies with chapters at Missouri S&T include:

Approximately 25% of the undergraduate student body belongs to a social Greek organization.[72]There are 5 sororities and 22 fraternities.[73]

The nationally recognized fraternities with chapters at Missouri S&T are:

The nationally recognized sororities with chapters at Missouri S&T are:

The Beta-Eta chapter of Tau Kappa Epsilon was founded at the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy on March 8, 1947 the fraternity's 55th chapter. It remains active at Missouri S&T and has a chartered alumni association.[74][75] As of spring 2018, the chapter has initiated 1,173 members and received 52 international awards.[76] The Beta-Eta chapter is currently recognized internationally as a "Top TKE Chapter", the fraternity's highest recognition for a chapter.[77] In 2017, the Tau Kappa Epsilon chapter at Missouri S&T completed construction of a new chapter house on Fraternity Row where the old Delta Sigma Phi round house was located.[78][79]

St. Patrick's Day is the largest annual celebration and predominant cultural event at Missouri S&T, with each year's observance touted as the "Best Ever!". During St. Pat's, students wear green sweatshirts (which are sold as fund-raisers throughout the season), carry shillelaghs and party (including drinking green beer). One tradition, observed primarily among fraternities, is the "killing" of rubber snakes in commemoration of St. Patrick's mythical banishing of snakes from Ireland. Along with snake invasion comes the tradition of Follies. Students meet daily at "the Puck" (a short cylindrical stage bearing a large shamrock) to hear jokes and participate in short competitions. On the third day of Follies, students move to the town's band-shell to participate in the ceremonial arrival of St. Pat's Court. The day after Follies, students participate in "Gonzo and Games". Gonzo and Games are two days of elaborate games in which different organizations compete. Friday of St. Pat's week is concluded with Coronation, a ceremony where the Queen of Love and Beauty is announced. The final event of St. Pat's week is a Saturday morning parade on Pine Street, which is painted green by St. Pat's Board Alumni. This parade is known throughout the United States and boasts well over one hundred floats and participating groups. The rationale for the celebration is the notion that St. Patrick is the patron saint of engineers.[80][81]The recognition of St. Patrick as the "Patron Saint of Engineers" began in 1903 when the Engineering students of the University of Missouri in Columbia claimed St. Patrick's Day to be a holiday for engineers.[82] The tradition has remained to this day and has been adopted by many other schools across the nation.St. Patrick's Day 2008 marked the one hundredth consecutive year of St. Patrick's Day celebrations at Missouri S&T.[83]

The naming structure for the head of the university has changed reflecting its changes through the years. It is currently headed by a chancellor who in turn reports to the University of Missouri system.[84]

The chancellor lives on campus at the Chancellor Residence (constructed in 1889 as the "Club House" dormitory, converted to a room house, before becoming the Missouri State Geological Survey headquarters and finally becoming the residence for the then-director in 1905).[85]

Coordinates: 375720N 914625W / 37.955544N 91.773513W / 37.955544; -91.773513

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Missouri University of Science and Technology - Wikipedia

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Bluetail Medical Group Regenerative Medicine Experts

Stem cells in the brain could be the key to extending life and slowing ageing. These cells which are located in the hypothalamus, a region that produces hormones and other signalling molecules can reinvigorate declining brain function and muscle strength in middle-aged mice, according to a study published on July 26in Nature1.

Previous studies have suggested that the hypothalamus is involved in ageing, but the latest research shows that stem cells in this region can slow the process. That makes sense, because the hypothalamus is involved in many bodily functions, including inflammation and appetite, says Dongsheng Cai, a neuroendocrinologist at Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City.

In their study, Cai and his colleagues found that stem cells in the hypothalamus disappear as mice grow older. When the researchers injected their mice with viruses that destroy these cells, the animals seemed to grow older faster, experiencing declines in memory, muscle strength, endurance and coordination. They also died sooner than untreated mice of the same age.

Next, the team injected stem cells taken from the hypothalami of newborn mice into the brains of middle-aged mice. After four months, these animals had better cognitive and muscular function than untreated mice of the same age. They also lived about 10% longer, on average.

The researchers found that these stem cells release molecules called microRNAs, which help to regulate gene expression, into the cerebrospinal fluid. When the team injected these microRNAs into the brains of middle-aged mice, they found that the molecules slowed cognitive decline and muscle degeneration.

It's an interesting paper, says Leonard Guarente, a molecular biologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, who studies ageing. He adds that it could lead to various ways of developing anti-ageing therapies in people.

Stem-cell therapies might enhance the ability of the hypothalamus to act as a master regulator, given that the latest results suggest it controls ageing through signalling peptides such as hormones and microRNAs, Cai says. He says that his team is trying to identify which of the thousands of types of microRNA produced are involved in ageing, and hopes to investigate whether similar mechanisms exist in non-human primates.

The findings represent a breakthrough in ageing research, says Shin-ichiro Imai, who studies ageing at Washington University in St Louis, Missouri. The next steps would be to link these stem cells with other physiological mechanisms of ageing, he says. For instance, these cells may have a role in regulating the neurons that release a hormone called GnRH, which is secreted by the hypothalamus and is associated with ageing. Imai would also like to know whether the microRNAs from the cells can pass into the bloodstream, which would carry them throughout the body.

Cai suspects that anti-ageing therapies targeting the hypothalamus would need to be administered in middle age, before a persons muscles and metabolism have degenerated beyond a point that could be reversed.

It is unclear by how much such a therapy could extend a human lifespan, but Guarente says that slowing the effects of ageing is the more important goal. Living longer isnt important if youre not healthy, he says.

This article is reproduced with permission and wasfirst publishedon July 26, 2017.

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Brain's Stem Cells Slow Aging in Mice - Scientific American