Category Archives: Epigenetics

Introduction

For decades, scientists have known the basic structure of our DNA, the building blocks that make up our genes. Although nearly every cell in the human body has the same set of genes, why is it that different types of cells, such as those from brain or skin, look and behave so differently?

The answer is epigenetics, a rapidly growing area of science that focuses on the processes that help direct when individual genes are turned on or off. While the cells DNA provides the instruction manual, genes also need specific instructions. In essence, epigenetic processes tell the cell to read specific pages of the instruction manual at distinct times.

Some epigenetic changes are stable and last a lifetime, and some may be passed on from one generation to the next, without changing the genes.

Several epigenetic processes involve chemical compounds that attach, or bind, to DNA or to proteins that package the DNA within cells called histones. When a chemical compound binds to DNA, certain genes switch on or off, selecting which proteins are made.

For example, the epigenetic process of DNA methylation involves the binding of a chemical compound called a methyl group to certain locations on the DNA. This binding changes the structure of DNA, making genes more or less active in their role of making proteins.

Another process called histone modification involves chemical compounds that bind to histone proteins. Ribonucleic acids, or RNAs, are also present in cells and can participate in epigenetic processes that regulate the activity of genes.

DNA methylation and histone modification are normal processes within cells and play a role in development, by instructing stem cells, or cells capable of turning into more specialized cells, like brain or skin cells.

Epigenetic processes are particularly important in early life when cells are first receiving the instructions that will dictate their future development and specialization. These processes can also be initiated or disrupted by environmental factors, such as diet, stress, aging, and pollutants.

In 2005, a team of Italian researchers provided the first concrete evidence for the role of environmental epigenetics in explaining why twins with the same genetic background can have vastly different disease susceptibilities.1 The researchers showed that, at birth, pairs of identical twins have similar epigenetic patterns, including DNA methylation and histone modifications.

However, over time, the epigenetic patterns of individuals become different, even in twins. Since identical twins are the same genetically, the differences are thought to result from a combination of different environmental influences that each individual experiences over a lifetime.

Investigating the effects of the environment on the epigenetic regulation of biological processes and disease susceptibility is a goal in the NIEHS 2012-2017 Strategic Plan.

NIEHS is currently supporting epigenetics research that is accelerating the understanding of human biology and the role of the environment in disease. These discoveries may lead to the development of new ways to prevent and treat diseases for which the environment is believed to be a factor.

In 2003, NIEHS-supported researchers made an important discovery that demonstrated the role of environmental epigenetics in development and disease.2 They used the agouti mouse in their study. The mouse has an altered version of the agouti gene, which causes them to be yellow, obese, and highly susceptible to developing diseases, such as cancer and diabetes.

The researchers fed the mice a diet rich in methyl groups. Through epigenetic processes, the methyl groups attached to the mothers DNA, and turned off the agouti gene. As a result, most of the offspring were born lean and brown, and no longer prone to disease.

This study was the first to demonstrate that it is not just our genes that determine our health, but also our environment and what we eat.

While researchers have known, for quite some time, the sequence of DNA that make up all human genes, collectively known as the genome, the same could not be said for the human epigenome, until recently. The epigenome refers to all of the chemical compounds added to the genetic material of an organism that regulate its function.

NIEHS and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) co-led a national effort, through the NIH Roadmap Epigenomics Program, to create a series of epigenomic maps representing locations on the DNA where chemical compounds attached in more than 100 different tissue and cell types, including blood, lung, heart, gastrointestinal tract, brain, and stem cells. The groundbreaking work was featured in a 2015 article in the journal Nature.3

By comparing the epigenomic map of a healthy cell or tissue, with the map of the same cell or tissue after an environmental exposure or in relation to a specific disease, NIEHS scientists can better understand how the environment affects genes through epigenetic processes. The epigenomic maps are available to the entire scientific community through the Washington University Epigenome Browser.

NIEHS-supported researchers at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health have shown that human exposure to environmental air pollutants and toxic metals, such as arsenic, can cause damage to cells that may lead to cardiovascular disease. The research team has been tracking abnormalities in blood, as well as epigenetic changes, which may serve as indicators, or markers, of exposure to air pollution and toxic metals at levels that can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, particularly in elderly men. These markers may help in the early detection and prevention of cardiovascular and other diseases.4,5

Grantees at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center used epigenetics to define the link between environmental exposure to smoke, mercury, and lead, and reproductive outcomes, such as preterm birth.6,7 Their results are important, since more than one in 10 infants worldwide is born prematurely, increasing their chances of having health problems later in life.8 The study also found that epigenetic changes may serve as markers for maternal chemical exposure during pregnancy.

NIEHS scientists in the Epigenetics and Stem Cell Biology Laboratory are examining how epigenetic mechanisms influence normal cell development, and contribute to biological processes involved in breast cancer and immune function. To date, they have uncovered many details of how the protein complex Mi-2/NuRD controls genes involved in breast cancer. Mi-2/NuRD is found in the nucleus of cells and includes enzymes that affect histone modifications that regulate gene activity.

The research is helping to identify what genes are regulated by the complex and how the complex alters epigenetic processes that may contribute to disease. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of disease may lead to the development of new methods to diagnose, prevent, and treat diseases, such as breast cancer, in the future.

NIEHS-supported researchers have found that early-life exposure to nutritional and dietary factors, maternal stress, and environmental chemicals can increase the likelihood of developing disease and poor health outcomes later in life. In addition, some of the effects of these exposures can be passed down for multiple generations, even after the original exposure has been removed, through a process known as transgenerational inheritance.

Researchers in the NIEHS Transgenerational Inheritance in Mammals After Environmental Exposure (TIME) Program are using mice and rats to investigate how transgenerational inheritance occurs after exposure to environmental exposures, whether the process is different in males and females, and when in development these events are most likely to occur. Understanding how transgenerational inheritance of effects from exposures occur in animals may shed light on similar processes in humans.

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Epigenetics - National Institute of Environmental Health ...

New scientific research shows that environmental influences can actually affect whether and how genes are expressed. In fact, scientists have discovered that early experiences can determine how genes are turned on and off and even whether some are expressed at all. Thus, the old ideas that genes are set in stone or that they alone determine development have been disproven. Nature vs. Nurture is no longer a debateits nearly always both!

Deep Dive: Gene-Environment InteractionLearn more about the physical and chemical processes that take place as part of the creation of the epigenome.

Working Paper 10: Early Experiences Can Alter Gene Expression and Affect Long-Term DevelopmentThis in-depth working paper explains how genes and the environment interact, and gives recommendations for ways that caregivers and policymakers can effectively respond to the science.

During development, the DNA that makes up our genes accumulates chemical marks that determine how much or little of the genes is expressed. This collection of chemical marks is known as the epigenome. The different experiences children have rearrange those chemical marks. This explains why genetically identical twins can exhibit different behaviors, skills, health, and achievement.

Until recently, the influences of genes were thought to be set, and the effects of childrens experiences and environments on brain architecture and long-term physical and mental health outcomes remained a mystery. That lack of understanding led to several misleading conclusions about the degree to which negative and positive environmental factors and experiences can affect the developing fetus and young child. The following misconceptions are particularly important to set straight.

The epigenome can be affected by positive experiences, such as supportive relationships and opportunities for learning, or negative influences, such as environmental toxins or stressful life circumstances, which leave a unique epigenetic signature on the genes. These signatures can be temporary or permanent and both types affect how easily the genes are switched on or off. Recent research demonstrates that there may be ways to reverse certain negative changes and restore healthy functioning, but that takes a lot more effort, may not be successful at changing all aspects of the signatures, and is costly. Thus, the very best strategy is to support responsive relationships and reduce stress to build strong brains from the beginning, helping children grow up to be healthy, productive members of society.

For more information:Early Experiences Can Alter Gene Expression and Affect Long-Term Development: Working Paper No. 10.

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What is Epigenetics? The Answer to the Nature vs. Nurture ...

What if the decisions you make today affect not just your health, but the health of your family for several generations to come? It sounds a bit crazy sure, your mid-afternoon sugar habit could lead to you packing on a few pounds over the years, but how in the world would it affect offspring you dont even have yet?

Welcome to the wild world of epigenetics.

Epigenetics is an emerging field of science that, eventually, could have massive implications on how we address our health and that of future generations. The world literally means on top of the genes, and that sums up the epigenomes role in the body.

All of us have DNA which, unless you have an identical twin, is completely unique. Almost every cell in our body contains all of our DNA and all of the genes that make us who we are; this is known as the genome. But obviously we are not all made up of just one type of cell. Our brain cells do different things from those in our heart, for instance, who behave differently than our skin cells. If all of our cells have the same information, how is it that they do different things?

This is where epigenetics comes in. Its basically a layer of instruction on top of our DNA that tells it what to switch on, how to perform and so forth. You can think of it like an orchestra: our DNA is the music, and the epigenome is the conductor, telling the cells what to do and when. Everyones personal orchestra is a little bit different. So while the epigenome doesnt change our DNA, its responsible for deciding what genes will be expressed in your bodys cells.

Heres how it works: each cell with all of your DNA waits for outside instruction to give it instructions. This comes in the form of a methyl group, a compound made from carbon and hydrogen. These methyl groups bind to the genes, letting them know when to express themselves and when to stay dormant, and they bind differently depending on where in the body the DNA is. Smart, eh?

Histones also play a role in epigenetics and how genes express themselves. Histones are the protein molecules that DNA wind itself around. How tightly wound the DNA is around the histone plays a role in how strongly a gene expresses itself. So the methyl groups tell the cell what it is (youre a skin cell, and heres what you do), and histones decide how much the cell is going to crank up the volume, so to speak. Every cell in your body has this methyl and histone combination, instructing it what to do and how much to do. Without the epigenome giving instructions to your cells, the genome, our bodies wouldnt know what to do.

What makes this interesting is that while our genome is the same from the time we are born to when we die, our epigenome changes throughout our lifetime, deciding what genes need to be turned on or off (expressed or not expressed). Sometimes these changes happen during major physical changes to our body, like when we hit puberty or when women are pregnant. But, as science is beginning to discover, external factors to our environment can prompt epigenetic changes as well.

Things like how much physical activity we engage in, what and how much we eat, our stress levels, whether we smoke or drink heavily and more can all make changes to our epigenome by affecting how methyl groups attach to the cells. In turn, changing the way methyl bonds to the cells can cause mistakes, which can lead to disease and other disorders.

It seems like because the epigenome is constantly changing, that each new human would start with a clean, fresh epigenome slate that is, that parents wouldnt pass their epigenomes on to their offspring. And while thats what should happen, sometimes these epigenetic changes get stuck on the genes and are passed down to future generations.

One example of this is the Dutch Hunger Winter Syndrome. Babies who were exposed to famine prenatally during World War II in the Netherlands had an increased risk of metabolic disease later in life and had different DNA methylation of a particular gene when compared to their same-sex siblings who were not exposed to famine. These changes persisted six decades later. (1)

Another study found that while identical twins are largely epigenetically indistinguishable from each other when theyre first born, as they aged, there were vast differences in their methyl groups and histones, affecting how their genes express themselves, and accounting for differences in their health. (2)

Damaged or weakened DNA that is replicated can inevitably create alternative epigenetic expression states that can affect several generations. A 2017 study discovered impaired DNA replication in roundworms increased expression from a non-expressed transgene or natural genetic material that has the potential to change the physical characteristics of an organism. Additionally, impaired DNA replication during embryonic or prenatal development has epigenetic consequences for a genomeor the organisms complete set of DNA. (3)

So far, it sounds like epigenetics is just kind of scary the worst of our habits or life situations being passed down not only to our children, but perhaps even our grandchildren. While epigenetics is still very much in its infancy, there is a lot to be excited about.

1. It could change the way we treat disease. Because the epigenome controls how genes behave, an erroneous epigenome can behave like a genetic mutation. This can lead to an increased risk for diseases like cancer or autoimmune disorders, even if the genes below the epigenome are perfectly normal. As we learn more about what causes those epigenetic errors, scientists can develop drugs that would manipulate the methyl groups or histones that are causing the epigenomic errors, potentially finding a cure for the subset of diseases caused by epigenetics.

2. It could change the way we treat addiction. We already know that some people are more vulnerable to addiction than others. But there is no one addiction gene, as its a combination of inherited and environmental factors that lead to addiction. Researchers have now found that epigenetic mechanisms play a role in the brain when it comes to addiction, influencing how the genes express themselves to develop addiction and also how the predisposition to addiction is passed along to future generations. (4) (5)

A better understanding of how the epigenome affects addiction could mean changing the way addiction is treated in order to prevent a persons offspring from an increased risk of addiction.

3. It could change the way we address trauma. One of the earlier theories around epigenetics is how traumatic events like surviving the Holocaust might change a person epigenome, along with that of their offspring. One small study suggests that the children of Holocaust survivors inherited a specific response to stress. (6)

Another found that children of women pregnant during the September 11 attacks had lower levels of cortisol, which could leave them more vulnerable to post-traumatic stress disorder. (7) These were both small studies and have their detractors, but while these studies might not be conclusive, its not a stretch to think that major traumatic events could find a way of altering someones epigenome enough to pass down to offspring.

Epigenetics is still extremely young, and many of the studies around the topic are quite small, so its hard to say anything is conclusive. Additionally, sometimes epigenetics seems like just one more thing that women who might potentially one become pregnant must worry about (though investigators believe that fathers could pass down epigenetic information at the time of conception, not enough research in humans has been done yet). This could get morally murky in terms of how we dictate what women can and cannot do because they might someday bear children.

No one is sure just how much what we do influences the epigenome, either. While doing all of the usual things like sticking to a healthy diet, exercising regularly, limiting alcohol will all positively affect your health, can they reverse previous damage to the epigenome? Its still unclear in humans. Most of the work done on epigenetics thus far has been on animals, and how much this translates to people remains to be seen.

There is one glimmer of hope in the animal world, though. A study done on rats found that the babies of mothers who were attentive were happier than those with inattentive mothers. There was a difference in the methylation levels between the happy and less happy baby rats, which affected how the gene that controlled their stress response was expressed. But when the less happy babies were adopted by the more attentive rat mothers, they actually grew up to be happier that is, the methyl differences werent permanent and were able to be changed. (8)

Read Next: Telomeres Can Unlock the Key to Longevity

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Epigenetics: Will It Change the Way We Treat Disease? - Dr. Axe

DNA modifications that do not change the DNA sequence can affect gene activity. Chemical compounds that are added to single genes can regulate their activity; these modifications are known as epigenetic changes. The epigenome comprises all of the chemical compounds that have been added to the entirety of ones DNA (genome) as a way to regulate the activity (expression) of all the genes within the genome. The chemical compounds of the epigenome are not part of the DNA sequence, but are on or attached to DNA (epi- means above in Greek). Epigenetic modifications remain as cells divide and in some cases can be inherited through the generations. Environmental influences, such as a persons diet and exposure to pollutants, can also impact the epigenome.

Epigenetic changes can help determine whether genes are turned on or off and can influence the production of proteins in certain cells, ensuring that only necessary proteins are produced. For example, proteins that promote bone growth are not produced in muscle cells. Patterns of epigenetic modification vary among individuals, different tissues within an individual, and even different cells.

A common type of epigenetic modification is called methylation. Methylation involves attaching small molecules called methyl groups, each consisting of one carbon atom and three hydrogen atoms, to segments of DNA. When methyl groups are added to a particular gene, that gene is turned off or silenced, and no protein is produced from that gene.

Because errors in the epigenetic process, such as modifying the wrong gene or failing to add a compound to a gene, can lead to abnormal gene activity or inactivity, they can cause genetic disorders. Conditions including cancers, metabolic disorders, and degenerative disorders have all been found to be related to epigenetic errors.

Scientists continue to explore the relationship between the genome and the chemical compounds that modify it. In particular, they are studying what effect the modifications have on gene function, protein production, and human health.

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What is epigenetics? - Genetics Home Reference - NIH

Depiction of cytosines methylation and demethylation processes. The different modified forms of cytosine along with the corresponding enzymes responsible for each modification are shown.

DNA methylation is an epigenetic mechanism that occurs by the addition of a methyl (CH3) group to DNA, thereby oftenmodifying the function of the genes and affecting gene expression. The most widely characterized DNA methylation process is the covalent addition of the methyl groupat the 5-carbon of the cytosine ring resulting in 5-methylcytosine (5-mC), also informally known as the fifth base of DNA. These methyl groups project into the major groove of DNA and inhibit transcription.

In human DNA, 5-methylcytosine is found in approximately 1.5% of genomic DNA.In somatic cells, 5-mC occurs almost exclusively in the context of paired symmetrical methylation of a CpG site, in which a cytosine nucleotide is located next to a guanidine nucleotide. An exception to this is seen in embryonic stem (ES) cells, where a substantial amount of 5-mC is also observed in non-CpG contexts. In the bulk of genomic DNA, most CpG sites are heavily methylated while CpG islands (sites of CpG clusters) in germ-line tissues and located near promoters of normal somatic cells, remain unmethylated, thus allowing gene expression to occur. When a CpG island in the promoter region of a gene is methylated, expression of the gene is repressed (it is turned off).

The addition of methyl groups is controlled at several different levels in cells and is carried out by a family of enzymes called DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). Three DNMTs (DNMT1, DNMT3a and DNMT3b) are required for establishment and maintenance of DNA methylation patterns. Two additional enzymes (DNMT2 and DNMT3L) may also have more specialized but related functions. DNMT1 appears to be responsible for the maintenance of established patterns of DNA methylation, while DNMT3a and 3b seem to mediate establishment of new or de novo DNA methylation patterns. Diseased cells such as cancer cells may be different in that DNMT1 alone is not responsible for maintaining normal gene hypermethylation (an increase in global DNA methylation) and both DNMTs 1 and 3b may cooperate for this function.

DNA demethylation is the removal of a methyl group from DNA. This mechanism is equally as important and coupled with DNA methylation. The demethylation process is necessary for epigenetic reprogramming of genes and is also directly involved in many important disease mechanisms such as tumor progression. Demethylation of DNA can either be passive or active, or a combination of both. Passive DNA demethylation usually takes place on newly synthesized DNA strands via DNMT1 during replication rounds. Active DNA demethylation mainly occurs by the removal of 5-methylcytosine via the sequential modification of cytosine bases that have been converted by TET enzyme-mediated oxidation. The ten-eleven translocation (TET) family of 5-mC hydroxylases includes TET1, TET2 and TET3. These proteins may promote DNA demethylation by binding to CpG rich regions to prevent unwanted DNA methyltransferase activity, and by converting 5-mC to 5-hmC, 5-hmC to 5-fC (5-formylcytosine), and 5-fC to 5-caC (5-carboxylcytosine) through hydroxylase activity. The TET proteins have been shown to function in transcriptional activation and repression (TET1), tumor suppression (TET2), and DNA methylation reprogramming processes (TET3).

The biological importance of 5-mC as a major epigenetic modification in phenotype and gene expression has been widely recognized. For example DNA hypomethylation, the decrease in global DNA methylation, is likely caused by methyl-deficiency due to a variety of environmental influences and has been proposed as a molecular marker in multiple biological processes such as cancer. The quantification of 5-mC content or global methylation in diseased or environmentally impacted cells could provide useful information for detection and analysis of disease. Furthermore, the detection of the DNA demethylation intermediate 5-fC in various tissues and cells may also be used as a marker to indicate active DNA demethylation. 5-fC can also be directly excised by thymine DNA glycosylase (TDG) to allow subsequent base excision repair (BER) processing which converts modified cytosine back to its unmodified state.

Differentially methylated regions (DMRs) are areas of DNA that have significantly different methylation status between multiple samples. Researchers will often perform genome-wide methylation profiling to identify DMRs between treated or untreated samples, revealing functional regions that may be involved in gene transcriptional regulation. There can be DMRs specific to tissues, cells, individuals, and so on. Differentially methylated regions may also be used as biomarkers or potential targets of epigenetic therapy.

Continue to the next page to learn about DNA methylation tools of the trade.

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DNA Methylation | What is Epigenetics?

Epigenetic mechanisms act at the interface of genetic and environmental factors regulating brain development and determining autism risk. Analysis of postmortem brain tissue, for example, shows thatepigenetic markers varyin people with autismcompared with controls.

Epigenetic modifications, particularly DNA methylation, can be influenced by chemical exposures in the environment, hormones, thefiring patterns of neurons, and diet. Folate, a B vitamin that we absorb from food and is included in prenatal vitamins, is necessary for DNA synthesis and methylation. Preconception use of prenatal vitamins was found to be protective for autism, particularly in mothers with genetic susceptibility in methyl-group metabolism.

Pinpointing epigenetic differences between healthy and diseased cells at progressive stages of development could reveal the roots of neurodevelopmental dysfunction.

Epigenetic changes can occur in adult brain cells and can be activity-dependent that is, triggered by brain activity in response to experience. Such neural responses to changes in the environment are an essential component of adaptivebrainfunction. Therefore, dysregulation of this capacity could lead to maladaptive behavior.

Some studies suggest that when one identical twin has autism, the other will also have it about 40 to 90 percent of the time. A better understanding of how the prenatal environment influences epigenetics could help pinpoint earlyenvironmental risk factors for autism and help explain those cases in which only one twin has autism.

Mapping the epigenome in the brain throughout the lifespan is important for understanding epigenomic changes in autism. In 2013, scientists unveiled the first comprehensive maps of human and mouse DNA methylation patterns from fetal development through adulthood. Aten-year effort known as theInternational Human Epigenome Consortiumaims to catalog and examine epigenetic maps for all cell types throughout the course of development.

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Epigenetics | Spectrum | Autism Research News

The epigenetics field stands on a strong foundation based on analysis of deviations from genetic rules. In recent years, we have witnessed an ever-growing interest in the mechanisms underlying epigenetic phenomena, along with novel approaches to study them. At our 2019 GRC on Epigenetics, we will cover fundamental aspects of epigenetic memory and inheritance, genome evolution, and the regulatory impact of repetitive elements, as well as our current understanding of the principles of nuclear organization and gene regulation. These topics will include environmental influences and novel biophysical and quantitative approaches, and will feature different model systems and experimental strategies.

This biennial GRC conference, which was launched in 1995, is highly valued by the Epigenetics field. The meeting gathers leaders and trainees in the field and is renowned for presentations of exciting new findings pre-publication and dynamic and fruitful discussions throughout the conference. The relaxed environment fosters informal interactions between established leaders in the field and the younger generation of students and postdocs.

The traditional GRC format will be preceded by a 2-day Gordon Research Seminar (GRS), a new conference for young scientists. The GRS is organized and attended by graduate students and postdocs, with established researchers invited only as keynote speakers, panel participants, or in an advisory role.

We look forward to a "breadth-taking" meeting, and look forward to your participation!

The topics, speakers, and discussion leaders for the conference sessions are displayed below. The conference chair is currently developing their detailed program, which will include the complete meeting schedule, as well as the talk titles for all speakers. The detailed program will be available by March 21, 2019. Please check back for updates.

Nuclear Organization

Discussion Leaders

Speakers

Transposable Elements and Epigenome Evolution

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Speakers

RNA-Mediated Epi-Regulation

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Speakers

Programming the Next Generation(s)

Discussion Leaders

Speakers

Reprogramming During Development

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Speakers

Epigenetic Memory and Maintenance

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Biophysics and Mathematical Models

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Environmental Influences

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Epigenetics and Disease

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Power Hour

Organizers:

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2019 Epigenetics Conference GRC

What Is Epigenetics?

Epigenetics is an emerging field of science that studies alterations in gene expression caused by factors other than changes in the DNA sequence. Epigenetics: The Death of the Genetic Theory of Disease Transmission (paperback, 592 pages) is the result of decades of research, and its findings could be as critical to our understanding of human health as Pasteur's research in bacteriology. Reading this book will change how you view the relationships between nutrition, genetics and disease. Take control of your health and learn how you can break free from the profit driven modern medical industry.

Dr. Joel "Doc" Wallach has dedicated his life work to identifying connections between nutritional deficiencies and a range of maladies generally thought to be hereditary, including cystic fibrosis and muscular dystrophy. This nexus between nutrition and the genetics of disease and birth defects has been observed in both human and animal pathology and is the central theme of Epigenetics. Wallach has teamed with noted scholars and researchers Dr. Ma Lan and Dr. Gerhard N. Schrauzer to present their far-reaching and enlightening perspectives on disease prevention and cures.

Epigenetics dispels misinformation from the dogma propagated by our current medical institutions and explains why many established doctors are resistant to change. This book is of vital importance to anyone who wants real knowledge about how the human body functions and how to apply that knowledge to our nutritional needs. Epigenetics lays the foundation to healthier, happier lives; for ourselves and for generations to come.

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Epigenetics - Alex Jones

The historical accounts of the rise of epigenetics as a field of study, combined with the inclusion of cutting-edging epigenetics research in various biological processes and model organisms, provide the reader with a clear sense of what epigenetics research is about, where it came from, where it is now, and where it is headed. It will prove to be the book that everyone with an interest in epigenetics would want to have and read. Cell; As a whole, Epigenetics is an impressive volume. The contributors provide an accurate survey of the field, from where it began, through where it is today, to where it is heading. Their accounts help set the stage for deepening our understanding of epigenetic phenomena and mechanisms. And the volume will undoubtedly prove to be very useful for students and researchers alike. --Science;Overall, Epigenetics is a scholarly work, eminently readable and a welcome resource for anyone looking for an introduction to this new and vibrant field.--BioEssays; Beautifully illustrated, this book is a rich source of information for a diverse pool of readers, ranging from graduate students making their first steps in a new field of knowledge to more experienced scientists whose research has led them to unfamiliar grounds. What makes; Epigenetics; a truly remarkable and, I believe, a long-lasting achievement is the clear and accessible overview of the major concepts and mechanisms that lay in the foundation of contemporary chromatin research. New details of how specific enzymes and proteins shape chromatin structure and composition may emerge, but the general principles that define how chromatin impacts on many cellular processes are likely to hold true; Genetical Research;In addition to the cutting-edge epigenetic research that is highlighted in this book by eminent scientists in the field, the summaries at the beginning of each chapter, and the multiple tables and colourful illustrations used throughout the book will prove useful in guiding the reader through a discussion of complex biological processes. Undoubtedly, some of these illustrations will be widely used by students and teacher of epigenetics. It is evident that the importance of epigenetics has become widely recognized and this book will be an excellent read for beginners as well as experts in this field; --Nature Cell Biology; What is epigenetics? Asking that question will likely return a number of answers that are all some variation of 'heredity that is not due to changes in DNA sequence.' In other words, epigenetics is not genetics. That seems a definition as indistinct as U.S. Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart's statement, 'I know it when I see it,' about obscenity. The recent volume, Epigenetics, provides well-needed clarity by setting down the fundamental concepts and principles of this emerging science... With the publication of Epigenetics, this fascinating scientific field no longer needs to be defined by what it is not. --The Quarterly Review of Biology

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Epigenetics 1st Edition - amazon.com

Epigenetics is the study of external or environmental factors that turn genes 'on' and 'off' and affect how cells 'read' genes.

Very little is known about the role of non-coding and regulatory DNA sequences for normal human brain development, or about their role in changes in the young or old brain, in diseases ranging from autism to Alzheimer's disease. Gaining first insights into these mechanisms is one of the major goals of our team of scientists focused on the neuro-epigenome.

The human genome is comprised of approximately six billion base pairs, the basic building blocks of genetic coding, amounting to a vast amount of genetic information. We are unlikely to gain a deeper understanding of uniquely human brain functions, including cognitive abilities and psychiatric and neurological diseases, merely by studying DNA sequences on a linear genome. This is because less than 1.5% of the genome is directly associated with protein encoding genes, and the majority of genetic polymorphisms and DNA variants conferring risk for neurological and psychiatric disease are positioned outside the portions of DNA encoding amino acids. Much of the remaining 98.5% of the genome is believed to play an important role in coordinating the regulation of gene expression networks. But gaining deeper insights into these mechanisms has been a challenge.

Our research in epigenetics is focused on a number of different areas.

We are developing novel epigenetic therapies for mood and psychosis spectrum disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia. This is the major focus of theDivision of Psychiatric Epigenomics,led bySchahram Akbarian, MD, PhD. Researchers are studying novel types of drugs that could alter the chemistry of brain nucleosomes in animal models of psychiatric disease. One family of molecules of particular interest are the enzymes that add or remove methyl-groups from lysine and arginine residues of the histone proteins. There are an estimated 100 lysine and arginine residue-specific histone methyltransferase and demethylase enzymes encoded in the human genome, many of which are assumed to play a critical role in maintaining neuronal health and function. These families of molecules are expected to provide plenty of targets for drug discovery and ultimately lead to better treatment options for neurological and psychiatric disease.

The Division of Psychiatric Epigenomics is studying nucleosomal organization and molecular composition in the nuclei of human brain nerve cell specimens collected postmortem in an effort to understand epigenetic changes during the course of normal development and aging across the lifespan, as well as epigenetic changes occurring in chronic psychiatric disease. While it is known that the overwhelming majority of nerve cells in the human brain stop multiplying via cell divisionduring prenatal development, extremely little is known about changes inside the nuclei of nerve cells during the subsequent periods of development, maturation, and aging. It remains a mystery how the genome in nerve cells is maintained as we grow, mature, and age, and how the molecular machinery inside our nerve cells is able to adapt to the myriad of environmental influences we are exposed to during our lives. Understanding how epigenetics is important for brain function in healthy brains, as well as those affected by disease, is a central research focus for us.

Scientists involved:Schahram Akbarian,Emily Bernstein,Patrizia Casaccia, Fatemah Haghighi,Yasmin Hurd,Paul Kenny,Javier Gonzalez-Maeso,Eric J. Nestler,Scott J. Russo,Anne Schaefer,Li Shen

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Epigenetics Research | Icahn School of Medicine